Flashbulb Memories: Vivid Yet Flawed Snapshots of Shocking Events

 Have you ever had an experience etched so deeply in your mind that you can recall the tiniest details? Many people share this phenomenon with events like the 9/11 terrorist attacks, and Goldstein (2019) states that these vivid memories of learning about public events are called flashbulb memories. But are they photographic snapshots of the past, or are they more like impressionistic paintings?

The Birth of a Term: Flashbulb Memories

Goldstein (2019) explains how the term was coined:

1. Psychologists Roger Brown and James Kulik coined the term flashbulb memory in 1977.
2. They were particularly interested in memories surrounding President John F. Kennedy's assassination. They believed that the emotional intensity of such events triggers a unique memory mechanism, creating a permanent, detailed record of how we learned about them.

Flashbulb Memories: Special or Not So Special?

While Brown and Kulik believed flashbulb memories were exceptional, research paints a different picture. Studies using repeated recall show that these memories change over time, and people may forget details or even misremember where they were or who told them about the event.

For instance, a study on the Challenger space shuttle explosion revealed that participants' memories of where they first heard the news shifted over a few years. This suggest that flashbulb memories are susceptible to influences beyond the original experience, just like regular memories. (Goldstein, 2019)

The Power of Rehearsal and Media

Researcher Ulric Neisser and his team proposed the "narrative rehearsal hypotheses" to explain flashbulb memories. They argue that we rehearse these events through conversations, news reports, and social media, which strengthens the memory but can also introduce inaccuracies (Goldstein, 2019).

Imagine constantly seeing images of the 9/11 attacks on TV. This repetition might make you believe you initially saw the news on TV, even if you didn't.

Researcher James Ost reinforces this idea. Participants were asked if they had seen a video of Princess Diana's car crash, which never existed (Goldstein 2019). The extensive media coverage led some to believe they had seen something unreal.

Flashbulb Memories: A Blend of Vividness and Inaccuracy

Research suggests that flashbulb memories, while vivid and enduring, are not immune to distortion. They share some characteristics with everyday memories, like fading details over time. However, flashbulb memories are more likely to be remembered, even if the details are inaccurate.

The Takeaway: Memories Can Be Reconstructed

Flashbulb memory research highlights human memory's fascinating—and som
etimes frustrating—flexibility. Our memories are not perfect recordings of the past but reconstructions influenced by emotions, rehearsal, and even media portrayals. Understanding this process is crucial for evaluating the accuracy of our memories, especially when dealing with historical events or eyewitness testimonies.

References

Goldstein, B. (2019). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience (5th ed.) [Review of Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience]. Cengage.

The Double-Edged Sword of Suggestion: How Police Questioning can taint Eyewitness Memory

 

Imagine a witness peering through a one-way glass at a lineup of suspects. The officer asks, which one of these men did it? This seemingly straightforward question presents a problem. It implies the perpetrator is present, pressuring the witness to choose someone, even if uncertain. A better approach would be to acknowledge that the culprit might not be in the lineup (Goldstein 2019).

From Uncertainty to Conviction: How Feedback Can Alter Memories

Goldstein (2019) asks us to consider this real-life example:

1. A witness hesitantly points to a suspect in a lineup and then wavers over their decision.
2. The officer says-  Okay.
3. Months later, the witness claims absolute certainty about their initial choice at trial.
4. The officers' seeming neutral response may have subtly influenced the withess' memory, transforming a tentative pick into an unshakeable conviction.

The Power of Confirmation: How Feedback Shapes Confidence

In 1998, Wells and Bradfield reinforced this concern with a study (Goldstein 2019):

1. Participants viewed a crime video and then picked a suspect from a photo spread that didn't include the actual perpetrator.
2. Everyone made a choice and then received either confirming feedback ("Good, you identified the suspect"), neutral feedback, or disconfirming feedback.
3. Those who received confirmation were more confident in their incorrect identification.

This phenomenon, called the post-identification feedback effect, creates a significant problem. Juries weigh eyewitness confidence heavily. So, faulty identifications and a confidence boost from police feedback can lead to wrongful convictions.

Protecting Witness Memory: The Need for Precaution

The ease with which memories can be influenced by suggestion highlights the need for caution during witness questioning, and unfortunately, such precautions are not always taken.

Goldstein (2019) tells us that the good news is that steps are being implemented to improve the situation. 

References

Goldstein, B. (2019). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience (5th ed.) [Review of Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience]. Cengage.

Memory: More Than Just a Replay Button

 

Believe it or not, our memories are not perfect photographs. They are influenced by what happened and our existing knowledge and understanding of the world. 

Bartlett's War of the Ghosts: Memory Reconstruction

Goldstein (2019) writes about a classic study by Bartlett in 1932:

• Participants read a story from Canadian folklore and were then asked to recall it at various intervals.
• Interestingly, over time, their memories became shorter and contained inaccuracies.
• However, the exciting part was that their memories often reflected their cultural background rather than the story's origin.
• For instance, canoes became boats, and a hesitant participant transformed into a courageous fighter.

Barlett's work highlighted various sources, including our experiences, to fill the gaps and create a coherent narrative.

Making Inferences: Filling in the Blanks

Our memories are also influenced by inferences we make based on our knowledge. Imagine being asked to wait in an office before a psychology experiment. Later, you're asked to recall the office details. You might report seeing bookshelves, even if there weren't any. Why? Because your "office schema" includes books as a common element.

Schemas are mental frameworks for various situations, like banks, restaurants, or classrooms. They help us organize information and make inferences about what might be present, even if we don't see it (Goldstein 2019).

Scripts: The Power of Sequence

Goldstein (2019) tells us that scripts are similar to schemas, but they focus on the sequence of events in a familiar situation:

1. Think of your coffee shop routine: waiting in line, ordering, paying, getting your drink. Scripts can influence memory by creating expectations about what typically happens.

Memory: A Tapestry of Experience

These examples highlight that memory is a complex process. Our experiences, knowledge, and cultural background all weave together to create a unique tapestry of memories. Understanding these influences is crucial for interpreting memories accurately, especially in situations like eyewitness testimony.

References

Goldstein, B. (2019). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience (5th ed.) [Review of Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience]. Cengage