Decoding the Dance: How Psychology and Sociology Make Your Tech Work

 Have you ever thought about the magic behind using your phone or computer? It's not just about the hardware and software; there's a whole science behind creating technology that feels intuitive and user-friendly. This field is called Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), and it's a fascinating blend of psychology, sociology, and computer science.

Understanding You, Understanding the System

HCI is all about the relationship between humans and the technology they interact with. Guar and colleagues (2024) do a fabulous job in their research article presenting these three critical things for a good relationship:

1. The User: This involves delving into your psychology - your goals, thought processes, and problem-solving skills. It also considers your physical limitations (ergonomics) and how you interact with others (sociology-ish).
2. The System: This is the technology itself, including the software, hardware, and interface design.
3. The Connection: This is where the magic happens! HCI experts consider how these elements work together to create a seamless experience.

Beyond the Screen: The Rise of Virtual Reality

Virtual Reality (VR) is a prime example of how HCI pushes boundaries. VR uses your senses to create an immersive experience. Imagine exploring a historical site or learning a new skill, all from the comfort of your home! For VR to work effectively, the interface must understand your hand movements and translate them into actions within the virtual world (Guar et al., 2024).

The Future of HCI: Reading Your Mind (Almost!)

The field of HCI is constantly evolving. Researchers are exploring how computers recognize our actions, emotions, and social cues. Imagine a system that can adjust its communication style based on whether you're feeling frustrated or relaxed.

Of course, there are challenges. HCI must account for cultural differences in nonverbal communication and the complex interplay of emotions that can influence our interactions with technology. (Guar et al., 2024)

The Psychology Behind the Click

Here's where psychology comes back in. HCI research utilizes cognitive theories to understand how people process information on screens (Guar et al., 2024). This helps designers create interfaces that are easy to understand and remember.

Gone are the days when HCI focused solely on keyboards and mice. Today, HCI recognizes the role of our entire thought process in how we interact with technology.

HCI is a fascinating field that bridges the gap between humans and technology. By incorporating insights from psychology, sociology, and cutting-edge advancements, HCI ensures that our tech experiences are functional, enjoyable, and emotionally engaging (Guar et al., 2024).

References

1. Guar, V., Bhatt, A., & Gupta, N. (2024). An Interactive Study of AI and Psychology [Review of An Interactive Study of AI and Psychology]. International Journal of Early Childhood Special Education, 14(8).

   https://doi.org/10.48047/INTJECSE/V14I8.258

Saving Lives without Fear: 👀👀👀👀👀

 

 Legal Protections for Narcan Administrators

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Laws that protect someone when they administer Narcan

Good Samaritan laws

• Good Samaritan laws are in place in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. These laws protect people who call 911 or provide assistance to someone in an emergency from being arrested or sued. This includes people who administer Narcan to someone who is experiencing an opioid overdose.

Naloxone access laws are in place in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. These laws make it easier for people to obtain Narcan, including through pharmacies and community organizations. Some of these laws also specifically protect people who administer Narcan from civil and criminal liability.

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What to do if you see someone overdosing

• If you see someone overdosing, the first thing you should do is call 911. If you have Narcan, you can also administer it to the person. Narcan is a safe and effective medication that can reverse an opioid overdose.

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To administer Narcan, follow these steps:

1. Remove the Narcan from the package and place it in your nose.
2. Push the plunger down to release the Narcan.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 if the person does not respond after 2-3 minutes.
4. Stay with the person until help arrives.

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Legal protections for people who administer Narcan

1. In most states, people who administer Narcan in good faith are protected from civil and criminal liability. This means that they cannot be sued or arrested for administering Narcan, even if the person overdosing dies.

1. However, it is important to note that these laws vary from state to state. It is always a good idea to check the laws in your state before administering Narcan.

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How to find out more about Narcan and Good Samaritan laws in your state

You can find more information about Narcan and Good Samaritan laws in your state by contacting your state health department or by visiting the website of the National Harm Reduction Coalition.

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Conclusion

Laws that protect people who administer Narcan are essential for saving lives. By making Naloxone more accessible and protecting people from legal liability, these laws encourage people to help others who are overdosing.

The Beauty of Darkness

 

The Other Side of Light

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Darkness is often seen as something negative, but it is actually essential for the existence of light. In fact, darkness is the glue that binds light together in the universe.

• Without darkness, light would not be able to exist. This is because light is the absence of darkness. When there is no darkness, there is no light.

Darkness is also essential for the formation of stars and galaxies. When gravity pulls matter together, it creates a dense cloud of gas and dust. This cloud is so dense that light cannot escape from it. This is why we see dark clouds in space.

Over time, the gravity in these clouds causes them to collapse and form stars. Stars are incredibly hot and bright, but they would not be able to exist without the darkness that created them.

Darkness is also essential for life on Earth. Plants need darkness to sleep and to grow. Animals need darkness to rest and to hunt. And humans need darkness to sleep and to dream.

So, while darkness is often seen as something negative, it is actually essential for the existence of light, stars, galaxies, and life on Earth.

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Here are some specific examples of how darkness binds light together in the universe:

Black holes: Black holes are regions of space where gravity is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape. Black holes are invisible, but we can see their effects on the light around them. For example, when a star passes near a black hole, its light is bent and distorted. This is called gravitational lensing.

Nebulae: Nebulae are clouds of gas and dust that are found throughout the universe. Nebulae are often dark, but they can also be very bright when they are illuminated by nearby stars. Nebulae are the birthplace of stars, and they play an important role in the formation of galaxies.

Dark matter: Dark matter is a mysterious substance that makes up about 85% of the matter in the universe. Dark matter is invisible, but we can see its effects on the gravity of visible matter. Dark matter is thought to play an important role in the formation and evolution of galaxies.

Darkness is a fundamental part of the universe, and it is essential for the existence of light and life.

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In addition to the above, darkness also has a significant impact on our perception of light. When we are in a dark room, even a small amount of light can seem very bright. This is because our eyes have adjusted to the darkness. In contrast, when we are in a brightly lit room, even a large amount of light may seem dim. This is because our eyes have adjusted to the brightness.

This contrast between light and dark is what allows us to see the world around us. Without darkness, we would not be able to perceive light, and the world would appear to be a flat, gray plane.

Darkness is also important for our mental and emotional well-being. When we are in darkness, our bodies produce melatonin, a hormone that helps us to sleep. Melatonin is also thought to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

In conclusion, darkness is an essential part of the universe and our lives. It is the glue that binds light together, and it plays an important role in the formation of stars, galaxies, and life on Earth. Darkness also has a significant impact on our perception of light and our mental and emotional well-being.

Self-Forgiveness

 And The Love You Feel For Yourself Will Come Down Like Rain

• Forgiveness is a powerful tool that can help us to heal from the emotional wounds of the past. It allows us to let go of anger and resentment, and to move forward in our lives with peace and joy.
• But what about forgiving ourselves? It is often difficult to forgive ourselves as we may feel guilty, ashamed, or even unworthy of forgiveness.

The truth is at our core we need to forgive ourselves for our mistakes and shortcomings. Forgive yourself unconditionally.

Here are a few reasons why it is so important to forgive ourselves:

1. When we forgive ourselves, we can heal. 
2. When we forgive ourselves, we let go of anger and resentment.
3. When we forgive ourselves, we learn and grow from our mistakes.
4. When we forgive ourselves, we develop self-compassion and understanding.
5. When we forgive ourselves, we move forward.

It is not always that easy though, is it?

When you first start the process you will have no idea where to start, and here are a few ways to "jump-start" the process:

1. Wake up every day and do something relevant, and this will vary depending on your situation. It can be as simple as taking a shower or any other ADL you may be neglecting.
2. Challenge your negative thoughts. This process works, but it takes time to foster and strengthen. 
3. Keep moving- metaphorically and physically.
4. Allow yourself to grieve and cry.
5. Set a small goal and work towards it every day. It does not matter how small your steps are, but what matters is that you are taking them or at least attempting to take them.

With every ADL, with every small step that you take, you are delivering messages to your core that you are worthy of forgiveness.

If you are struggling to forgive yourself, here are a few tips:

1. Acknowledge your pain. It is important to acknowledge the pain that you have experienced, both physical and emotional. Allow yourself to feel your emotions, and don't try to suppress them.
2. Be patient with yourself. Forgiveness is a process, and it takes time. Don't expect to forgive yourself overnight. Just be patient with yourself and trust that you will heal in time.
3. Practice self-compassion. Talk to yourself the way you would talk to a friend who is hurting. Be kind and understanding towards yourself.
4. Seek support from others. It can be helpful to talk to a trusted friend, family member, or therapist about your struggles with forgiveness. They can offer you support and encouragement.

Remember, you are worthy of forgiveness. You are not alone. And there is hope for healing.

Deep Impact

 The Effects of a Second Concussion

• Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects nearly 2 million people annually in the United States, with falls and motor vehicle accidents being the most common causes (Hooley et al., 2019).
• According to Hooley and colleagues (2019), these are the most susceptible demographics to TBI:

1. Children 0 to 4 years old
2. Adolescents 15 to 19 years old
3. Adults 65 years and older

• The DSM-5 categorizes cognitive impairments from head injuries as major or mild neurocognitive disorders.

Explosive blasts in the past have caused an increase in TBI cases among military personnel, and this has caused TBI to become the signature injury of the Iraq War. About 15 percent of soldiers serving in Iraq experienced a TBI. Full recovery may not be possible for many survivers. (Hooley et al, 2019)

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Two types of brain injuries:

1. Closed-head injuries -  The skull remains intact.
1. 
   Close-head injuries cause indirect damage due to forces that cause the brain to actually inadvertently make contact with the skull wall.
2. Rotational forces can also cause the brain to inadvertently twist the brain mass in relation to the brain stem. This injury causes neuron damage due to shearing forces on the nerve fibers and their synaptic interconnections (Hooley et al., 2019).
2. Penetrating head injuries - An object enters the brain such as a bullet.

Severe head injuries will often cause someone to lose consciousness. When this happens there is a major disruption of circulatory, metabolic, and neurotransmitter regulation. These types of injuries usually lead to (Hooley et al., 2019) :

1. Retrograde amnesia - which is an inability to recall the events immediately preceding the injury
2. Anterograde amnesia - which is an inability to effectively store memories of events that happen after the trauma.

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Recovery

Recovery from unconsciousness caused by a head injury varies from minutes to days. It is not uncommon for the survivor to go through stages of stupor and confusion. In some cases, the survivor may remain in a coma for a period of time. This coma may be followed by delirium which is evident by acute excitement, disorientation, and hallucinations. Gradually all of this may clear up and the survivor may actually regain appropriate contact with reality.

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Minor closed-head brain concussions and contusions occur frequently due to car accidents, sports injuries, and falls. Some theme park rides can actually cause high enough G-forces in som individuals by creating small tears in delicate blood vessels in the brain. (Hooley, et al., 2019)

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If you have a concussion, your brain is four to five times more likely to be damaged by a second head injury, and this increased risk lasts for several weeks.

References

Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033

 

Splendor In The Grass

 A Coming of Age

Alcohol addiction has been around for centuries, and its early days were marked by a lack of understanding about the nature of addiction. Alcohol was often seen as a social lubricant and a way to relax and unwind. It was not until the 20th century that alcohol addiction began to be recognized as a serious problem.

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Video gaming addiction is a more recent phenomenon, and its early days were marked by a similar lack of understanding. Video games were often seen as harmless entertainment, and there was little concern about the potential for addiction. However, in recent years, there has been growing awareness of the dangers of video gaming addiction.

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Video gaming addiction is becoming a serious problem. To validate its seriousness, I want to compare the coming-of-age of alcohol addiction to where video gaming addiction is at now.

1. Availability: Alcohol has always been readily available, but video games have become increasingly accessible in recent years. With the advent of handheld consoles, smartphones, and tablets, people can now play video games anywhere, at any time.
2. Social acceptance: Alcohol use has always been socially acceptable, but video gaming addiction is still stigmatized. Many people still view video games as a waste of time, and they may not take the addiction seriously.
   
3. 
   Symptoms: The symptoms of alcohol addiction and video gaming addiction are similar, but there are some key differences. For example, people with alcohol addiction may experience withdrawal symptoms such as sweating, tremors, and nausea. People with video gaming addiction may experience withdrawal symptoms such as anxiety, irritability, and difficulty sleeping.
4. Treatment: There are a variety of treatment options available for alcohol addiction, including counseling, medication, and 12-step programs. There are also a growing number of treatment options available for video gaming addiction, but they are not as well-established as those for alcohol addiction.

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1. Both alcohol addiction and video gaming addiction are serious problems that can have a devastating impact on individuals and families. It is important to be aware of the risks of addiction and to seek help if you or someone you know is struggling.

The Promise of Social Robots and BCI Video Games for Treating ADHD

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• Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity according to Cervantes and colleagues (2023)  definition. The current treatments for children living with ADHD combine different approaches, such as pharmacological, behavioral, cognitive, and psychological treatment (Cervantes et al., 2023). The computer science research community has been working on developing non-pharmacological treatments that are based on novel technologies for dealing with ADHD (Cervantes et al., 2023).

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Social Robots

Therapists use these social robots to mediate between the therapist and some children living with ADHD. According to Cervantes and colleagues (2023), they can provide companionship and support to children with ADHD and they can also teach social skills.

Brain-computer interface video games

BCI video games use a brain-computer interface to measure the player's brain activity and can be used to improve attention, focus, and activity.

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Cervantes and colleagues (2023) set out to perform a systematic review from an interdisciplinary approach to the current state of these two technologies these were the two main questions: 

• 1 How have social robots and BCI video games been evaluated? 
•  Are there still open challenges in social robots and BCI video games to improve their impact and benefit on children living with ADHD?

🟨🟨Their search strategy🟥🟥

1. Four major online databases were used: PubMed, Engineering Village, IEEE Xplore, and Scopus.
2. The search was limited to papers published from January 2010 to 15 June 2022.

• 🟥The search strategy for study 1: Social Robots for Dealing with ADHD was developed to identify papers that met the following criteria:

1.  They were published in peer-reviewed journals.
2. They were written in English.
3. They investigated the use of social robots or BCI video games for the treatment of ADHD.
4. The search strategy was based on the keywords "social robot", "BCI video game", "ADHD", and "treatment".
5. Out of 332 results, the researchers ended up evaluating 17 papers in the final S. L. R.
   
   

🟨Their search for Study 2: BCI Video Games for Dealing with ADHD

Cervantes and colleagues (2023) ended up with 19 papers.

🟦🟦🟦🟦🟦🟦What they found🟦🟦🟦🟦🟦🟦

🟦The review was conducted from an interdisciplinary approach, and the results were organized into two sections: engineering and healthcare.

 Engineering:

•  The engineering section focused on the type of applications developed, the most common robots used, and the input signals and environments used.
• The most common applications were for supporting rehabilitation therapies, and the most common robots used were humanoid robots.
• The real environment was the most common environment used in robot-based applications.
• The most common environments used in BCI video game applications were 3D, 2D, virtual reality, and mixed reality.

Healthcare:

• The healthcare section focused on the main characteristics of participants involved in trials, the results reported in each study, and whether these technologies can significantly reduce ADHD symptoms or improve any skill ability.
• The majority of participants in trials were children living with ADHD.
• The most common results reported were that these technologies can reduce attention deficit and improve some skills, such as learning, writing, spatial memory, working memory, communication, and interaction.
• Only two applications, Focus Pocus and EndeavorRx, are commercialized and prescribed for treating children living with ADHD.

Limitations of the study🟩🟩🟩🟩🟩🟩🟩🟩🟩🟩🟩🟩

Cervantes and colleagues (2023) stated that the following were challenges identified during the systematic literature review for developing computational systems based on social robots or BCI video games to treat ADHD:

• 🟩Diagnosing ADHD: There are three different subtypes of ADHD, and people with ADHD can also have other neurodevelopmental disorders. This makes it difficult to develop a general system for diagnosing ADHD.
• 🟩Customizing cognitive training exercises: Cognitive training exercises need to be customized according to the individual's characteristics, such as the subtype of ADHD, the level of ADHD, and the person's preferences. This can be challenging to do.
  
• 🟩Capturing and maintaining attention: Children with ADHD can easily lose interest in tasks, so it is important for cognitive training exercises to be engaging and interesting.
• 🟩Long-term studies: Most studies on social robots and BCI video games for ADHD have been short-term. More long-term studies are needed to see how effective these technologies are in the long run.
• 🟩Certification: Some social robots and BCI video games for ADHD have been approved for use, but many are still in the development stage. It can be difficult to get these technologies certified because they are relatively new.
• 🟩Avoiding physical harm: Some social robots can pose physical harm to children, so it is important to design them safely.
• 🟩Compromised social-emotional development: Children with ADHD can form strong emotional attachments to social robots. This could potentially compromise their social-emotional development.

These are just some of the challenges that researchers and engineers face in developing and using social robots and BCI video games for ADHD. More research is needed to address these challenges and to develop effective and safe technologies for helping children with ADHD.

🟩🟩🟩🟩🟩🟩What this all means🟦🟦🟦🟦🟦🟦🟦🟦

• Researchers looked at 36 systems that use social robots or BCI video games to help people with ADHD. Some systems help diagnose ADHD, others help with cognitive training, and others help study the brain. Most systems are still being developed and tested, but some have shown promise in helping people with ADHD. Researchers need to do more studies to see how well these systems work in real-world settings. Some people with ADHD have had positive experiences with these systems, but others have had negative experiences. Developers need to make sure that these systems are flexible and can be customized for each individual.

References

Cervantes, J.-A., López, S., Cervantes, S., Hernández, A., & Duarte, H. (2023). Social Robots and Brain-Computer Interface Video Games for Dealing with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review. Brain Sciences, 13(8), 1172. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13081172

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Frotteurism

 Frotteurism is a disorder characterized by sexual excitement at rubbing one's genitals against or touching the body of a non-consenting person. It is similar to voyeurism in that it reflects an inappropriate and persistent interest in something that many people enjoy in a consensual context (Hooley et al. 2019). Roughly 8 to 10 percent of men have a lifetime history of touching or rubbing against someone they did not know in a sexual way without their consent according to Hooley and colleagues (2019).  Some people have speculated that frotteurs are more likely to commit other sexual offenses, but there is no evidence to support this claim. People who are regularly on crowded buses or subway trains are often victims of frotteurism.

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Dsm-5 Criteria for frotteurism

1. Over a period of at least 6 months, recurrent and intense sexual arousal from touching or rubbing against a nonconsenting person, as manifested by fantasies, urges, or behaviors.
2. The individual has acted on these sexual urges with a nonconsenting person, or the sexual urges or fantasies cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

References

Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033

Voyeur Eyes Only

 

Voyeurism

• Voyeurism is believed to be the most common paraphilic disorder (Hooley, et al. 2019). Someone can be diagnosed with voyeuristic disorder if they have recurrent, intense sexually arousing fantasies, urges, or behaviors involving the observation of unsuspecting people who are undressing or of couples engaging in sexual activity (Hooley et al. 2019). Voyeurism is often accompanied by exhibitionism, and it is also associated with interest in sadomasochism and cross-dressing.

Why do some people adopt this behavior?    

• Here are the DSM-5 criteria for a Voyeuristic Disorder:

• 🟦Over a period of at least 6 months, recurrent and intense sexual arousal from observing an unsuspecting person who is naked, in the process of disrobing, or engaging in sexual activity, as manifested by fantasies, urges, or behaviors. 
• 🟦The individual has acted on these sexual urges with a nonconsenting person, or the sexual urges or fantasies cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
• 🟦The individual experiencing the arousal and/or acting on the urges is at least 18 years of age.

Voyeurism is not usually linked to other serious crimes. Most people have voyeuristic urges, but they are usually prevented by the risk of being caught and ethical concerns about privacy.

References

 Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033

When is a Paraphilia not a Paraphilia??

When a Paraphilia Becomes a Disorder

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 Paraphilic disorders are characterized by recurrent, intense sexual fantasies, urges, or behaviors that are atypical in terms of their targets, context, or participants, and that cause significant distress or impairment in the individual's life. These urges and behaviors generally involve (Hooley et al., 2019) :

1. abnormal targets of sexual attraction such as objects or children\
2. unusual courtship behaviors such as watching someone undress without their consent or exposing themselves to others without consent.
3. the desire for pain and suffering of oneself or other people.

🟥Paraphilias challenge the authors of DSM editions for two main reasons (Hooley et al, 2019):

1. Some paraphilias are considered pathological even if the person experiencing the symptoms does not experience any distress.
2. Some other categories of paraphilia may be compatible with psychological health and happiness if all parties are of age and willfully consent.

The DSM-5 distinguishes between paraphilias and paraphilic disorders (Hooley et al. 2019).

🟥Paraphilias are defined as unusual sexual interests that cause no harm to either person or others.

🟥Paraphilic disorders - are defined when paraphilias cause suffering to anyone involved.

• Although mild forms of these conditions occur in many people's lives, a person with the disorder is distinguished by the intensity and the exclusivity with which their sexuality focuses on the acts or objects in question (Hooley, et al. 2019).  For instance, in some cases, orgasm is not attainable without these acts or objects.
• These disorders can also be compulsive requiring someone to orgasm as often as four to ten times per day.
• Most people with paraphilic disorders are male.

 The DSM-5 recognizes eight specific paraphilic disorders that can be classified into several different subtypes (Hooley, et al. 2019): 

1. Voyeuristic
2. Exhibitionistic
3. Frotteuristic
4. Sexual sadism
5. Sexual Masochism
6. fetishistic
7. transvestic 
8. pedophilic

There is also another specified paraphilic disorder which includes several rare disorders (Hooley et al. 2019):

• Scatologia - obscene phone calls
• Necrophilia - the sexual desire for corpses
• Zoophilia - sexual interest in animals
• Apotemnophilia - sexual excitement and desire about having a limb amputated
• Coprophilia - sexual arousal to feces

References

Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033

 Some Anatomy on Postoperative Pain

Nociception is the neural processing of injurious stimuli in response to tissue damage ( 2023). Nociception starts at the sensory receptors; however, the perception does not start until the brain gets the signal. There are several of these nociceptive pathways that lead to the brain. Most axons  (which are nerve fibers that conduct electrical impulses) that carry nociceptive information to the brain from the spinal cord project to the thalamus. Their final processing takes place in the primary somatosensory cortex. There is one nociceptive pathway that projects directly to the hypothalamus in the forebrain. This area modulates the cardiovascular and neuroendocrine functions of the autonomic nervous system. This pathway is responsible for stimulating the sympathetic branch of the visceral sensory system, which gives you a fight-or-flight response (2023). 

Afferent neural pathways mediate the sensation of pain. Acute post-surgical pain has three categories

• nociceptive
• occurs in response to stimuli such as direct intraoperative tissue injury (Horn & Kramer 2022).
• inflammatory
• This pain occurs when the nociceptive fibers become sensitized which is in response to the release of inflammatory mediators such as cytokines and can last hours to days.
• neuropathic
• This pain is more chronic and it results from injury to neuronal structures.

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Postoperative pain is characterized as somatic or visceral.

• Somatic pain is the type of pain you feel in your skin, muscles, joints, and bones. 1 It can feel like a gnawing, aching, cramping or sharp.
• Visceral pain comes from your organs 

The goal for pain management aims to target the afferent pain pathways by different mechanisms such as antagonizing pain receptor activity or blocking the production of proinflammatory mediators

• Approximately 75 percent of patients who undergo surgery experience acute postoperative pain, which is often medium-high in severity (Horn & Kramer, 2022).
• Less than half of patients undergoing surgery report adequate postoperative pain relief.

"Inadequate postoperative pain control may lead to adverse physiologic effects among patients in the immediate postoperative period and places them at increased risk of developing chronic pain associated with the procedure (Horn & Kramer, 2022).

• Severe persistent postoperative pain affects 2 to 10 percent of adults.

References

 Horn, R., & Kramer, J. (2022, September 19). Postoperative Pain Control. PubMed; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544298/

(2023). Vitalsource.com. https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/reader/books/9781938168093/pageid/377

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Causal Factors for Eating Disorders

 There is no single cause of eating disorders. They are likely caused by a complex interaction of genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors: Eating disorders may be partly caused by genes. People who have a family history of eating disorders are more likely to develop them themselves.

Environmental factors

 Eating disorders may also be partly caused by environmental factors. These include cultural pressures to be thin, exposure to dieting and weight loss programs, and traumatic life events.

 

Specific environmental factors (Hooley et al., 2019):

1. Cultural pressure to be thin
2. Exposure to dieting and weight loss programs
3. Traumatic life events
4. Family history of eating disorders
5. History of other mental health conditions, such as anxiety or depression

 The diathesis–stress model helps explain how genetic and environmental factors interact to cause eating disorders.

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The diathesis-stress model (Hooley et al, 2019):

•  Genes make some people more susceptible to environmental pressures, which can then lead to the development of problematic eating attitudes and behaviors.
• the diathesis -  people who are genetically predisposed to a certain condition 
• When the above meets the right stressor, an eating disorder can develop
• This model is only a theory.

Genetics

• Family studies: Family studies have shown that people with eating disorders are more likely to have relatives with eating disorders or other mental health conditions.
• Twin studies: Twin studies have shown that eating disorders are more likely to be shared by identical twins than fraternal twins. This suggests that genes play a role in the development of eating disorders.

Genome-wide association studies:

•   Genome-wide association studies have identified several genes that are associated with eating disorders. These genes are involved in a variety of biological processes, including
•  metabolism
•  mood regulation
•  development.
• These genes alone do not guarantee an eating disorder will develop.

Brain abnormalities 

 

Hypothalamus:

     The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that plays an important role in regulating eating behavior. Animal studies have shown that lesions to the hypothalamus can lead to overeating or undereating.

 Frontal and temporal cortex:

 The frontal and temporal cortex are also involved in eating behavior. Damage to these areas has been linked to the development of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.

Network of brain areas:

 Animal research suggests that a network of brain areas, including the hypothalamus, the frontal cortex, and the amygdala, may be involved in the development of eating disorders.

Set point

• Set point theory is a theory that suggests that our bodies have a natural weight range that they try to maintain.
• Hunger is one way that our bodies try to maintain our set point. When we lose weight, our hunger increases in an attempt to get us back to our set point.
• Influenced by a variety of factors, including genetics, metabolism, and environment.

Serotonin

• 
   Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that has been implicated in obsessionality, mood disorders, and impulsivity. It also modulates appetite and feeding behavior.
• Many patients with eating disorders respond well to treatment with antidepressants (which target serotonin), leading some researchers to conclude that eating disorders involve a disruption in the serotonergic system.
• Serotonin is made from an essential amino acid called tryptophan, which can only be obtained from food.

5-HIAA

Product of serotonin metabolism(5 HIAA, n.d.). 

• People with anorexia nervosa have low levels
• People with bulimia nervosa have normal levels.

Serotonin overactivity

It has been suggested that people with may use dieting as a way to regulate this by decreasing the amount of tryptophan available to make serotonin (Hooley et al, 2019).

•  Neurotransmitters like serotonin do not work in isolation and changes in the serotonin system will have implications for other neurotransmitter systems too

 

Reward Sensitivity

• A new direction in eating disorders research centers on the brain pathways and neurotransmitters (such as dopamine) that are involved in reward processing.
• Patients with anorexia nervosa show more activity in brain reward areas when they view pictures of thin rather than healthy models, while controls show the opposite pattern
  
• Reward and punishment systems get contaminated; normally rewarding stimuli such as food become aversive, and stimuli associated with self-starvation become valued.

References

 5 HIAA. (n.d.). TheFreeDictionary.com. Retrieved August 27, 2023, from https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/5+HIAA

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