The Psychology of Fungi:

 Fungi are often seen as simple organisms, but they are actually capable of a wide range of complex behaviors. In recent years, there has been growing interest in the psychology of fungi, and researchers are beginning to uncover the rich inner lives of these fascinating organisms.

One area of research that has received a lot of attention is the way that fungi communicate.

•  Fungi use a variety of chemicals to communicate with each other, including pheromones, antibiotics, and toxins. These chemicals can be used to attract mates, defend against predators, or coordinate the activities of a group of fungi.
• Fungi are also capable of learning and memory. In one study, researchers trained mushrooms to associate a certain sound with a food reward. The mushrooms were then able to remember the sound and anticipate the food reward, even when the sound was presented in a different context.

• Fungi may even be capable of feeling emotions. In one study, researchers found that mushrooms released different chemicals depending on whether they were feeling stressed or happy. These findings suggest that fungi may be able to experience a range of emotions, just like humans.

• The psychology of fungi is a relatively new field of research, but it is quickly gaining
  momentum. As scientists learn more about the inner lives of these fascinating organisms, we are gaining a new appreciation for their intelligence, complexity, and potential.

Here are some additional thoughts on the psychology of fungi:

• Fungi may be able to sense their environment and make decisions based on that information. For example, some fungi can sense changes in temperature and humidity, and they can adjust their behavior accordingly.
• Fungi may be able to form social bonds with each other. For example, some fungi form networks of interconnected hyphae, which allow them to share resources and information.
  
• Fungi may be able to learn and adapt to their environment. For example, some fungi can develop resistance to antibiotics. " Fungi have an extraordinary capacity to adapt to a changing environment, responding to environmental cues via signaling pathways poised for activation by specific stimuli"(Simaan et al., 2019). 
• Fungi may even be capable of experiencing emotions. For example, some fungi release different chemicals depending on whether they are feeling stressed or happy.

 The fungal cell employs conserved eukaryotic signaling pathways and dedicated transcription factors to program its response to these stresses (Simaan et al., 2019). 

 

The psychology of fungi is a vast and complex subject, and there is still much that we do not know about these fascinating organisms. However, the research that has been done so far suggests that fungi are far more intelligent and complex than we once thought. As we learn more about the psychology of fungi, we are gaining a new appreciation for their role in the natural world and their potential to benefit humans.

References

 Simaan, H., Lev, S., & Horwitz, B. A. (2019). Oxidant-Sensing Pathways in the Responses of Fungal Pathogens to Chemical Stress Signals. Frontiers in Microbiology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.00567

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The Complex Interplay of Genetics, Environment, and Neural Plasticity in Brain Development and Psychiatric Disorders

The Complex Interplay of Genetics, Environment, and Neural Plasticity in Brain Development and Psychiatric Disorders

Neural plasticity:

Is the brain's ability to change and adapt in response to its environment. Neural plasticity is essential for :

• learning
•  memory 
• recovery from illness

The brain is constantly changing and adapting. Existing neural circuits can be modified or new neural circuits can be generated. These changes can be beneficial or detrimental to the individual, depending on the nature of the change and the individual's circumstances.

 While brain lesions can sometimes cause psychiatric symptoms, they are not the primary cause of most psychiatric disorders.

• Brain lesions are areas of damaged or diseased tissue in the brain. They can be caused by a variety of factors, including trauma, stroke, infection, and tumors.
• In some cases, brain lesions can cause psychiatric symptoms, such as mood swings, hallucinations, and delusions. However, brain lesions are not the primary cause of most psychiatric disorders.
• Psychiatric disorders are complex conditions that are influenced by a variety of factors, including genetics, environment, and life experiences. Brain lesions may play a role in some psychiatric disorders, but they are not the only factor involved.

Research has revealed that genetic factors guide brain development, but genetic programs for brain development are not as rigid and deterministic as once believed (Hooley et al, 2019).

Prenatal experiences can influence the development of the brain and nervous system.

• Positive prenatal experiences, such as being exposed to a stimulating environment, can help to promote healthy brain development.
• Negative prenatal experiences, such as being exposed to stress or trauma, can have a harmful impact on brain development.
• The effects of prenatal experiences can vary depending on the individual and the specific experience.

Postnatal environmental events can also have a significant impact on brain development in infants and children.

Genetics:

 Genes influence the development of the brain and nervous system, and they also influence how the brain responds to environmental experiences.

Neural activity:

 Neural activity refers to the electrical and chemical signals that occur in the brain. Neural activity is influenced by genetics, environmental experiences, and behavior.

Behavior:

 Behavior refers to the things that we do. Behavior is influenced by genetics, neural activity, and the environment.

Environment:

 The environment includes everything that is around us, both physical and social. The environment can influence genetics, neural activity, behavior, and even gene expression.

References

 Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033

What does it mean when someone is genetically predisposed to something?

 Genetic Vulnerabilities

Genes are long molecules of DNA present on chromosomes within a cell nucleus. Genes carry the information we inherit from our parents and exist in alternate forms called alleles. Most mental disorders show some genetic influence, with some influences apparent in newborns and children, while others manifest in adolescence or adulthood. Each human cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes containing genetic materials that encode the hereditary plan for each individual. One copy of each chromosome comes from the mother and one from the father. Twenty-two chromosome pairs determine an individual’s general characteristics, while the remaining pair, the sex chromosomes, determines the individual’s sex (Hooley et al, 2019).

(Hooley et al, 2019)

Abnormalities in the structure or number of chromosomes can be associated with major defects or disorders. Anomalies may also occur in the sex chromosomes, producing complications that may predispose a person to develop abnormal behavior.

Polymorphisms are naturally occurring variations of genes. Polymorphisms often influence personality traits. The term polygenic means influenced by multiple genes or polymorphisms of genes. 

When we say someone is genetically vulnerable we are saying that they have inherited a large number of genes or polymorphisms of genes that can work together to make someone more susceptible to developing a mental disorder. 

 These genes may cause abnormal structures in the central nervous system, and abnormal regulation of brain chemistry, and hormone levels. This can also alter the reactivity of the autonomic nervous system.

Keep in mind that behavior is not determined by genetics alone. Our interaction with the environment along with genetics determines our behavior.

Stress which can be caused by environmental factors can actually activate or deactivate gene expression. 

Genotype

is a term used to describe the genetic makeup of an individual. It is the
complete set of genes that an individual inherits from their parents. 

Genetic endowment 

is another term for genotype. It refers to the genes that an individual has, regardless of whether or not they are expressed in their phenotype.

Phenotype

Is the structural and functional characteristics that result from the interaction of someone's genotype and the environment,

The interaction of genotype and environment is complex and can vary from one individual to another. However, it is important to understand that phenotype is not simply determined by genotype. The environment plays an important role in shaping our physical and functional characteristics.

References

 Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033

There is no single cause for mental disorders

What causes mental illness?

:

Biological perspective

Factors such as genetics, neurobiology, and hormonal responses can influence psychopathology.

Psychological perspective:

Dysfunctional thoughts, feelings, and behaviors can lead to psychopathology.

Sociocultural perspective

Social and cultural factors can influence how we think about abnormal behavior.

Many theorists recognize the need for a biopsychosocial viewpoint that acknowledges that biological, psychological, and social factors all interact and play a role in psychopathology and treatment (Hooley er al, 2019).

References

Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033

 

 

 Understanding Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative disorders are a group of mental health conditions that involve a disconnection between a person's thoughts, memories, identity, or sense of reality. This disconnection can manifest in a variety of ways, including memory loss, identity disturbance, and perceptual disturbances. Dissociative disorders can be caused by a variety of factors, including trauma, genetics, and brain chemistry.

The Concept of Dissociation

The concept of dissociation was first promoted over a century ago by the French neurologist Pierre Janet. Dissociation can be defined as “a disruption of and/or discontinuity in the normal, subjective integration of one or more aspects of psychological functioning, including—but not limited to—memory, identity, consciousness, perception and motor control (Hooley et al, 2019).

Dissociation is a normal mental process that everyone experiences from time to time. However, dissociation can become a mental health condition when it is disruptive, causes memory loss, or results in a loss of sense of self.

Unconscious Mental Processes

A lot of our thoughts and feelings happen without us even realizing it. This is called unconscious mental processing. For example, you might remember something that you didn't even know you remembered, or you might react to something without even knowing why. Unconscious mental processing can also play a role in things like learning, memory, and decision-making.

The idea of unconscious mental processing has been around for a long time, but it's only recently that scientists have been able to study it in depth. There are a number of experimental techniques that can be used to investigate unconscious mental processing, and the study of this topic is a growing field of research.

Dissociative Disorders

 People with these disorders have difficulty integrating information and experiences into their conscious awareness. This can lead to symptoms such as amnesia, identity disturbance, and perceptual disturbances.

 It is theorized that dissociative disorders may be a way of avoiding anxiety and stress, or of managing life problems that have overwhelmed the person's usual coping resources. Dissociative disorders can also be a way of denying personal responsibility for unacceptable wishes or behavior.

 This paragraph summarizes the key points of the passage. It is important to note that dissociative disorders are complex conditions, and there is no single explanation for why they develop. However, the passage provides some insights into the possible causes and symptoms of these disorders.

Conclusion

Dissociative disorders are a group of conditions involving disruptions in a person’s normally integrated functions of consciousness, memory, identity, or perception. While mild dissociation is a normal part of everyday life, pathological dissociation can result in significant disruptions to an individual’s sense of self and ability to function.

References

 Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033

Factitious Disorder vs Malingering: Understanding the Differences

Factitious disorder and malingering are two conditions that can be easily confused, but they have some key differences. In this blog post, we will explore these differences and provide some insight into these two conditions.

What is Factitious Disorder?

Factitious disorder is a condition in which a person intentionally produces or exaggerates physical or psychological symptoms, without any external rewards. In other words, the person is not motivated by any tangible external incentives such as avoiding work or military service, or evading criminal prosecution.

Patients with factitious disorders may alter their own physiology in order to simulate real illnesses. For example, they may take drugs to produce symptoms. This can put them at risk for serious injury or death, and they may even need to be committed to an institution for their own protection.

The prevalence of factitious disorder is not well established, but it is estimated to be around 0.5 to 0.8 percent of patients in general hospital settings. The disorder is also thought to be more common in women than in men. However, systematic research on this disorder is lacking and there is currently no theoretical model of why it develops (Hooley et al, 2019).

What is Malingering?

Malingering, on the other hand, is a condition in which a person intentionally produces or grossly exaggerates physical symptoms for external incentives. These incentives can include avoiding work or military service, evading criminal prosecution, or obtaining financial compensation.

Key Differences

The key difference between factitious disorder and malingering is the motivation behind the behavior. In factitious disorder, the person receives no tangible external rewards for their behavior. In contrast, the person who is malingering is motivated by external incentives.

Another important difference is the potential harm caused by the behavior. In factitious disorder, the person may be at risk for serious injury or death due to their actions. In malingering, the harm caused by the behavior is typically limited to financial or legal consequences.

A Dangerous Variant: Factitious Disorder Imposed on Another

A dangerous variant of factitious disorder is factitious disorder imposed on another (sometimes referred to as Munchausen’s syndrome by proxy). In this condition, the person seeking medical help has intentionally produced a medical or psychiatric illness (or the appearance of an illness) in another person. This person is usually someone (such as a child) who is under his or her care.

In a typical instance, a mother presents her own child for treatment of a medical condition she has deliberately caused. To produce symptoms, the mother might withhold food from the child, add blood to the child’s urine, give the child drugs to make him or her throw up, or heat up thermometers to make it seem as if the child has a fever. If the child is hospitalized, the mother might deliberately infect an intravenous (IV) line to make the child more ill.

This form of child abuse can seriously endanger the health of the victim and may require intervention from social service agencies or law enforcement. In as many as 10 percent of cases, the actions of the mother may lead to a child’s death.

This disorder may be suspected when the victim’s clinical presentation is atypical, when lab results are inconsistent with each other or with recognized diseases, or when there are many frequent returns or increasingly urgent visits to the same hospital or clinic. The perpetrators (who often have extensive medical knowledge) tend to be highly resistant to admitting the truth about what they are doing. They also appear to be devoted to their child, making it hard for healthcare providers to suspect that they are the cause of the child’s problems.

It has been estimated that it takes an average of 14 months to confirm a diagnosis of factitious disorder imposed on another. If the perpetrator senses that medical staff are suspicious, he or she may abruptly terminate contact with that facility and show up at another one to begin the process anew. Compounding the problem of detection is that healthcare professionals who realize they have been duped may be reluctant to acknowledge their fallibility for fear of legal action.

One technique that has been used with considerable success in diagnosing this disorder is covert video surveillance of the mother and child during hospitalizations. In one study, 23 of 41 suspected cases were finally determined to have factitious disorder by proxy, and in 56 percent of those cases,

Video
surveillance was essential to diagnosis.

Conclusion

In conclusion, factitious disorder and malingering are two conditions that can be easily confused but have some key differences. The main difference between these two conditions lies in their motivation: while people with factitious disorder receive no tangible external rewards for their behavior, those who are malingering are motivated by external incentives such as avoiding work or military service or evading criminal prosecution.

References

Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033

 Depression is associated with disrupted immune function.

 People with depression are more likely to get sick and have a more difficult time recovering from illness.

Depression is linked to heart disease.

 People with depression are more likely to develop heart disease and have a heart attack.

Stress activates the immune system, triggering the production of proinflammatory cytokines. These cytokines can lead to changes in the brain that manifest as symptoms of depression (Hooley et al 2019).

Depression may interact with stress to further enhance inflammatory responses. This can increase the risk of heart attack.

People with heart disease are three times more likely to be depressed than healthy people. Depression is also a risk factor for the development of heart disease (Hooley et al, 2019).

• People who are depressed have shorter telomeres than people who are not depressed.
  
  
  

Telomeres are protective caps on the ends of chromosomes. Shorter telomeres are associated with an increased risk of disease and death.

These findings suggest that depression is a stressful condition that can have a negative impact on physical health. Depression can disrupt immune function, increase the risk of heart disease, and shorten telomeres. If you are struggling with depression, it is important to seek professional help. There are effective treatments available that can help you improve your mental and physical health.

References

 Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033