DSM-5 Criteria for. . . Schizophrenia

 DSM-5 Criteria for. . .

Schizophrenia

• A) Two (or more) of the following, each present for a significant portion of time during a 1-month period (or less if successfully treated). At least one of these must be (1), (2), or (3):

1. Delusions.
2. Hallucinations.
3. Disorganized speech (e.g., frequent derailment or incoherence).
4. Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior.
5. Negative symptoms (i.e., diminished emotional expression or avolition).

• B) For a significant portion of the time since the onset of the disturbance, the level of functioning in one or more major areas, such as work, interpersonal relations, or self-care, is markedly below the level achieved prior to the onset (or when the onset is in childhood or adolescence, there is failure to achieve the expected level of interpersonal, academic, or occupational functioning).
• C) Continuous signs of the disturbance persist for at least 6 months. This 6-month period must include at least 1 month of symptoms (or less if successfully treated) that meet Criterion A (i.e., active-phase symptoms) and may include periods of prodromal or residual symptoms. During these prodromal or residual periods, the signs of the disturbance may be manifested by only negative symptoms or by two or more symptoms listed in Criterion A present in an attenuated form (e.g., odd beliefs, unusual perceptual experiences).
  
• D) Schizoaffective disorder and depressive or bipolar disorder with psychotic features have been ruled out because either (1) no major depressive or manic episodes have occurred concurrently with the active-phase symptoms, or (2) if mood episodes have occurred during active-phase symptoms, they have been present for a minority of the total duration of the active and residual periods of the illness.
• E) The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical condition.
• F) If there is a history of autism spectrum disorder or a communication disorder of childhood onset, the additional diagnosis of schizophrenia is made only if prominent delusions or hallucinations, in addition to the other required symptoms of schizophrenia, are also present for at least 1 month (or less if successfully treated).

References

Hooley, Jill, M. et al. Abnormal Psychology. Available from: VitalSource Bookshelf, (18th Edition).

             Pearson Education (US), 2019.

 

Schizophrenia: A Complex and Challenging Disorder

 Schizophrenia: A Complex and Challenging Disorder

Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder that affects approximately 1 in 100 people worldwide. It is characterized by a range of symptoms, including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, and impaired social functioning.

The exact cause of schizophrenia is unknown, but it is thought to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. There is no cure for schizophrenia, but treatment with medication and therapy can help to manage the symptoms and improve the quality of life.

Symptoms of Schizophrenia

The symptoms of schizophrenia can vary from person to person, but they typically fall into three categories:

• Positive symptoms are those that are not present in healthy people.
•  They include delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking.
• Negative symptoms are those that are absent in healthy people. They include flat affect, alogia (reduced speech), and avolition (reduced motivation).
• Cognitive symptoms affect a person's ability to think, learn, and remember. They include problems with attention, concentration, and memory.

Delusions are false beliefs that are held with absolute conviction, even in the face of evidence to the contrary. For example, a person with schizophrenia might believe that they are being followed, that they have special powers, or that they are being controlled by a government agency.

Hallucinations are sensory experiences that occur in the absence of a real stimulus. For example, a person with schizophrenia might hear voices, see things that are not there or smell things that no one else can smell.

Disorganized thinking is characterized by speech that is illogical, incoherent, or difficult to follow. A person with schizophrenia might jump from topic to topic, makeup words, or have trouble staying on track.

Flat affect is a lack of emotional expression. A person with a flat affect might not smile, frown, or show any other facial expressions. They might also speak in a monotone voice and show little interest in the world around them.

Alogia is a reduction in speech. A person with alogia might speak very little, or they might say only a few words at a time. They might also have difficulty finding the right words to express themselves.

Avolition is a lack of motivation. A person with avolition might not take care of themselves, they might not show up for work or school, and they might not be interested in spending time with friends or family.

Cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia can range from mild to severe. They can affect a person's ability to think clearly, learn new things, and remember information. In some cases, cognitive symptoms can be so severe that they interfere with a person's ability to function independently.

Treatment for Schizophrenia

There is no cure for schizophrenia, but treatment with medication and therapy can help to manage the symptoms and improve the quality of life.

The most common medication for schizophrenia is called an antipsychotic. Antipsychotics work by blocking the effects of dopamine, a neurotransmitter that is thought to be involved in the symptoms of schizophrenia.

In addition to medication, therapy can also be helpful for people with schizophrenia. Therapy can help people to understand their illness, develop coping skills, and improve their social skills.

Living with Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia can be a challenging disorder to live with, but it is important to remember that it is a treatable condition. With the right treatment, most people with schizophrenia can live full and productive lives.

If you or someone you know is struggling with schizophrenia, it is important to seek professional help. A doctor or therapist can assess the severity of the symptoms and develop a treatment plan that is right for you.

There are also many support groups available for people with schizophrenia and their families. These groups can provide a sense of community and offer valuable resources and information.

With the right treatment and support, people with schizophrenia can live fulfilling lives. They can go to school, work, and have relationships. They can also contribute to their communities and make a difference in the world.

References

 Hooley, Jill, M. et al. Abnormal Psychology. Available from: VitalSource Bookshelf, (18th Edition).

             Pearson Education (US), 2019.

Characteristics and motivations of a rapist:

Perpetrators of rape, who are overwhelmingly male, are characterized by impulsivity, quick loss of temper, lack of personally intimate relationships, and insensitivity to social cues or pressures. A subset of these individuals qualify for a diagnosis of psychopathy. Many rapists also show deficits in social and communication skills, as well as in their cognitive appraisals of women’s feelings and intentions. For example, they may have difficulty decoding women’s negative cues during social interactions and may interpret friendly behavior as flirtatious or sexually provocative. This can lead to inappropriate behaviors that women would experience as sexually intrusive.

Some studies have gone beyond examining the characteristics of men who perpetrate rape and sexual assault and have directly assessed their motives and justifications for their behavior. In one study, men who had reported engaging in sexual assault were evaluated regarding the rationale for their behavior. The primary justifications they endorsed were that the victim “had gotten [me] sexually aroused,” “led [me] on,” “was responsible,” and that “[I] thought she’d enjoy it once it started.” Factors that predicted the report of such justifications included rape-supportive attitudes held by the men, misperceptions of the victim’s sexual interest in the perpetrator, and the number of alcoholic drinks consumed by the victim.

The researchers in this study followed the perpetrators for 1 year. They found that the greater their use of justifications for having sexually assaulted a woman, the more likely they were to commit another act of sexual aggression in the future. These findings shed some light on the factors that lead some people to commit rape and sexual assault. As research progresses in this area, there are increasing efforts to better identify both potential perpetrators and victims before a sexual assault occurs and to use prevention programs to try to decrease the likelihood that such an assault will take place.

In conclusion, perpetrators of rape are characterized by certain traits and behaviors that can help us understand their motivations for committing this crime. Research is ongoing in this area to prevent rape and sexual assault from occurring. Society needs to continue to work towards this goal.

References

 Hooley, Jill, M., et al. Abnormal Psychology. Available from: VitalSource Bookshelf, (18th Edition).

         Pearson Education (US), 2019.

Rape and its Aftermath:

 Rape and its Aftermath:

Traditionally, rape has been classified as a sex crime, and society has assumed that a rapist is motivated by lust. However, in the 1970s some feminist scholars began to challenge this view, arguing that rape is motivated by the need to dominate, to assert power, and to humiliate a victim rather than by sexual desire for her. From the perspective of the victim, rape is always an act of violence and is certainly not a sexually pleasurable experience, whatever the rapist’s motivation.

While much of the motivation for rape may stem from a desire to dominate or humiliate others, there are many compelling reasons why sexual motivation is often, if not always, a very important factor too. The age distribution of rape victims includes a very high proportion of women in their teens and early 20s, who are generally considered the most sexually attractive. This age distribution is quite different from the distribution of other violent crimes. Furthermore, rapists usually cite sexual motivation as a very important cause of their actions.

In addition to the physical trauma inflicted on a victim, the psychological trauma of rape may be severe. A rape may lead to PTSD in a substantial number of female victims and can have a negative impact on a victim’s sexual functioning and on her marriage or other intimate relationships. Although there has been little systematic study of men who have been raped, one study revealed that nearly all experienced some long-term psychological distress following rape.

While there is a clear perpetrator in all instances of rape and sexual assault, there remains an unfortunate myth of “victim-precipitated” rape—a position often invoked by defense attorneys trying to prevent the perpetrator from being charged with rape. According to this view, a victim is regarded as the cause of the crime on such grounds as the alleged provocativeness of her clothing or her past sexual behavior. Fortunately, rape shield laws began to be introduced in the 1970s to protect rape victims.

A recent example of the complexity inherent in the legal situation of rape prosecution is that of Dominique Strauss-Kahn (DSK), who was accused by a New York City hotel worker of sexually assaulting her when she entered his hotel room to clean it. A police investigation confirmed that sexual contact had occurred, but DSK insisted that it was consensual. Subsequently, another woman came forward accusing him of raping her years earlier in France. However, the case unraveled when prosecutors learned that DSK’s accuser had lied about other matters. The charges were dropped.

In conclusion, rape is a complex issue with many factors at play. It can have significant physical and psychological consequences for its victims. It is important for society to continue to work towards preventing this crime and supporting its victims.

 References

 

 Hooley, Jill, M. et al. Abnormal Psychology. Available from: VitalSource Bookshelf, (18th Edition).                                   Pearson Education (US), 2019.