Naloxone

 Frequently Asked Questions about Naloxone

What is naloxone?

Naloxone is a life-saving medication that can reverse an overdose of opioids—including heroin, fentanyl, and prescription opioid medications—when given in time. There are two forms of naloxone that anyone can use without medical training or authorization (Frequently Asked Questions about Naloxone, 2023): 

Nasal spray – Prefilled devices that spray medication into the nose.

Injectable – Medication (solution) given by injection into a muscle or under the skin.

How much does naloxone cost and where can I get it?

The cost varies depending on where you get the naloxone, how you get it, and what type you get. Check with your insurance provider to see if naloxone is covered under your plan. Community-based organizations and local health departments may offer naloxone at little to no cost. Naloxone is available in all 50 states and at pharmacies in most states without a prescription. Healthcare professionals can co-prescribe naloxone with high-dose opioids. Your state and local health departments or community-based organizations may offer a naloxone locator on their website (Frequently Asked Questions about Naloxone, 2023).

 Can I use naloxone on myself?

No, naloxone is administered to someone after an overdose has occurred. Because the individual who overdosed is likely unconscious and/or their movement and breathing are restricted, they would need assistance (Frequently Asked Questions about Naloxone, 2023). 

 

Can naloxone prevent an overdose?

No, naloxone cannot be taken prior to using drugs to prevent an overdose(Frequently Asked Questions about Naloxone, 2023). 

 Is naloxone addictive?

No, naloxone is safe to use and is not addictive (Frequently Asked Questions about Naloxone, 2023).  

Is naloxone easy to use?

Yes, naloxone is easy to use and medical training is not required. Check out CDC’s videos on how to use naloxone nasal spray and how to use injectable naloxone (Frequently Asked Questions about Naloxone, 2023). 

How many doses of naloxone do I need to give if someone is overdosing?

Naloxone is a fast-acting drug that can reverse opioid overdose and restore normal breathing within 2-3 minutes.3 Additional doses of naloxone may be needed for larger quantities of opioids or more potent opioids, like fentanyl. If the person who has overdosed remains unresponsive, keep giving additional doses (if available) until they’re alert or until emergency assistance arrives (Frequently Asked Questions about Naloxone, 2023). 

What to do if you think someone is overdosing:

1. Call 911 immediately.
2. Administer naloxone, if available.
3. Try to keep the person awake and breathing.
4. Lay the person on their side to prevent choking.
5. Stay with the person until emergency assistance arrives.

Does naloxone have side effects?

Naloxone can (but does not always) cause withdrawal symptoms or unpleasant physical reactions, in people who are physically dependent on opioids. Withdrawal symptoms may include fever, anxiety, irritability, rapid heart rate, sweating, nausea, vomiting, and tremors (Frequently Asked Questions about Naloxone, 2023). 

Is naloxone harmful?

Naloxone won’t harm someone if they’re overdosing on opioids or other drugs, so it’s always best to use it if you think someone is overdosing (Frequently Asked Questions about Naloxone, 2023). 

Can anyone carry naloxone?

Yes, anyone can purchase and/or carry naloxone to help respond to an overdose. It is not just for people with an opioid or other substance use disorder. Having naloxone available allows bystanders to help save lives by preventing a fatal overdose (Frequently Asked Questions about Naloxone, 2023). 

References

Frequently Asked Questions about Naloxone. (2023, July 5). Www.cdc.gov.          https://www.cdc.gov/stopoverdose/naloxone/faq.html#what

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 Early Release of Selected Estimates Based on Data From the 2022 National Health Interview Survey 

In this release, the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) Early Release Program provides estimates for 20 key health indicators based on data from the 2022 NHIS. These estimates are being published prior to final data editing and final weighting to provide access to the most recent information from NHIS (Schiller & Norris, n.d.).

Percentages (and 95% confidence intervals) of selected key health indicators for adults aged 18 and over, by quarter and year (Schiller & Norris, n.d.):

United States, 2022

                     Disability Status:     9.1

        Regularly had feelings of worry, nervousness, or anxiety:  12.5

Regularly had feelings of depression: 5.0

Counseled by a mental health professional in the past 12 months: 12.6

Did not get needed mental health care  due to cost in the past 12 months:    4.0

Did not take medication as prescribed to save money in the past 12 months: 6.6

Counseled by a mental health professional in the past 12 months: 12.6

 References

Schiller, J., & Norris, T. (n.d.). 2-27.8) Regularly had feelings of worry, nervousness, or anxiety 5 12.3 (11.1-13.6) 13.0 (12.1-13.9) 12.6 (11.5-13.8) 12.2 (11.4-13.0) 12.5 (11.9-13.2) Regularly had feelings of depression 6 5. 26. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhis/earlyrelease/earlyrelease202304.pdf

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History and Ethical Principles

 History and Ethical Principles

Research with human subjects has a long and often troubled history. Some of the most egregious examples of unethical research include (Hicks, 2020): 

The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: In this study, which ran from 1932 to 1972, the U.S. Public Health Service withheld treatment from African American men with syphilis, even after penicillin became a widely available treatment. The men were not told the true nature of the study, and many of them died from syphilis or its complications. 

The Nazi human experimentation program: During World War II, Nazi doctors and scientists conducted horrific experiments on concentration camp prisoners. These experiments included injecting prisoners with diseases, irradiating them, and performing surgery without anesthesia. Many of the prisoners died or were permanently injured as a result of these experiments. 

The Willowbrook Study: This study, which ran from 1963 to 1974, involved intentionally infecting mentally disabled children with hepatitis in order to study the course of the disease. The children were not told about the study, and their parents were not given informed consent. 

 These abuses led to the development of ethical guidelines for research with human subjects. The most important of these guidelines are (Hicks 2020): 

Informed consent: Research subjects must give their informed consent before participating in a study. This means that they must be told the purpose of the study, the risks and benefits of participating, and their right to withdraw from the study at any time. 

Risk-benefit analysis: The risks of participating in a study must be outweighed by the potential benefits. 

Respect for persons: Research subjects must be treated with respect and dignity. 

Justice: Research subjects must be selected fairly and equitably. 

 These guidelines are designed to protect the rights and welfare of human subjects in research. They have helped to prevent many abuses, but there are still cases of unethical research that occur. It is important to be aware of these abuses and to work to prevent them from happening again. 

The Nuremberg Code was developed in the wake of the Second World War to prevent future abuses of human subjects in research. It outlines ten points for conducting ethical research, including the importance of informed consent, the avoidance of unnecessary suffering, and the fair selection of subjects (Hicks 2020).

The Declaration of Helsinki is a code of research ethics developed by the World Medical Association. It is based on the Nuremberg Code and the physician's code of ethics known as the Declaration of Geneva (Hicks 2020).

The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research was created in the United States in response to the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. The Commission issued the Belmont Report in 1979, which outlines three key ethical principles for conducting research with human subjects: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice (Hicks 2020).

The Belmont Report informed the development of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Code of Federal Regulations (45 CFR 46), which is the primary set of regulations governing research with human subjects in the United States (Hicks 2020).

The Belmont Report and the HHS regulations are based on the principle that all research with human subjects must be conducted in an ethical manner. This means that researchers must respect the autonomy of their subjects, avoid causing them unnecessary harm, and fairly select them for participation in research (Hicks 2020).

The Belmont Report and the HHS regulations are applicable to all research with human subjects, including research in the social and behavioral sciences, education, and the humanities (Hicks 2020).

References

 Hicks, L. (2020). CITI - Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative. Citiprogram.org; CITI         Program. https://www.citiprogram.org/members/index.cfm?pageID=665&ce=1#view 

The Importance of Controlled Research Trials in Abnormal Psychology

 The Importance of Controlled Research Trials in Abnormal Psychology

Researchers in abnormal psychology are often interested in learning which treatments work for specific disorders. One way to do this is to conduct controlled research trials. In a controlled research trial, participants are randomly assigned to two or more groups. One group receives the treatment being studied, while the other group(s) receive a placebo or no treatment. The placebo is a fake treatment that looks and feels like the real treatment, but it does not contain any active ingredients. This type of study design helps to ensure that any differences between the groups are due to the treatment and not to other factors, such as the participants' expectations or the natural course of the disorder.

There are two main types of controlled research trials:

1. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are the gold standard for testing the effectiveness of treatments. In an RCT, participants are randomly assigned to the treatment group or the control group. This helps to ensure that the groups are as similar as possible, except for the treatment they receive.
2. Case-control studies compare people who have a disorder (the cases) to people who do not have the disorder (the controls). The researchers then look for differences between the two groups, such as differences in their exposure to a particular treatment.