Causal Factors for Eating Disorders

 There is no single cause of eating disorders. They are likely caused by a complex interaction of genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors: Eating disorders may be partly caused by genes. People who have a family history of eating disorders are more likely to develop them themselves.

Environmental factors

 Eating disorders may also be partly caused by environmental factors. These include cultural pressures to be thin, exposure to dieting and weight loss programs, and traumatic life events.

 

Specific environmental factors (Hooley et al., 2019):

1. Cultural pressure to be thin
2. Exposure to dieting and weight loss programs
3. Traumatic life events
4. Family history of eating disorders
5. History of other mental health conditions, such as anxiety or depression

 The diathesis–stress model helps explain how genetic and environmental factors interact to cause eating disorders.

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The diathesis-stress model (Hooley et al, 2019):

•  Genes make some people more susceptible to environmental pressures, which can then lead to the development of problematic eating attitudes and behaviors.
• the diathesis -  people who are genetically predisposed to a certain condition 
• When the above meets the right stressor, an eating disorder can develop
• This model is only a theory.

Genetics

• Family studies: Family studies have shown that people with eating disorders are more likely to have relatives with eating disorders or other mental health conditions.
• Twin studies: Twin studies have shown that eating disorders are more likely to be shared by identical twins than fraternal twins. This suggests that genes play a role in the development of eating disorders.

Genome-wide association studies:

•   Genome-wide association studies have identified several genes that are associated with eating disorders. These genes are involved in a variety of biological processes, including
•  metabolism
•  mood regulation
•  development.
• These genes alone do not guarantee an eating disorder will develop.

Brain abnormalities 

 

Hypothalamus:

     The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that plays an important role in regulating eating behavior. Animal studies have shown that lesions to the hypothalamus can lead to overeating or undereating.

 Frontal and temporal cortex:

 The frontal and temporal cortex are also involved in eating behavior. Damage to these areas has been linked to the development of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.

Network of brain areas:

 Animal research suggests that a network of brain areas, including the hypothalamus, the frontal cortex, and the amygdala, may be involved in the development of eating disorders.

Set point

• Set point theory is a theory that suggests that our bodies have a natural weight range that they try to maintain.
• Hunger is one way that our bodies try to maintain our set point. When we lose weight, our hunger increases in an attempt to get us back to our set point.
• Influenced by a variety of factors, including genetics, metabolism, and environment.

Serotonin

• 
   Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that has been implicated in obsessionality, mood disorders, and impulsivity. It also modulates appetite and feeding behavior.
• Many patients with eating disorders respond well to treatment with antidepressants (which target serotonin), leading some researchers to conclude that eating disorders involve a disruption in the serotonergic system.
• Serotonin is made from an essential amino acid called tryptophan, which can only be obtained from food.

5-HIAA

Product of serotonin metabolism(5 HIAA, n.d.). 

• People with anorexia nervosa have low levels
• People with bulimia nervosa have normal levels.

Serotonin overactivity

It has been suggested that people with may use dieting as a way to regulate this by decreasing the amount of tryptophan available to make serotonin (Hooley et al, 2019).

•  Neurotransmitters like serotonin do not work in isolation and changes in the serotonin system will have implications for other neurotransmitter systems too

 

Reward Sensitivity

• A new direction in eating disorders research centers on the brain pathways and neurotransmitters (such as dopamine) that are involved in reward processing.
• Patients with anorexia nervosa show more activity in brain reward areas when they view pictures of thin rather than healthy models, while controls show the opposite pattern
  
• Reward and punishment systems get contaminated; normally rewarding stimuli such as food become aversive, and stimuli associated with self-starvation become valued.

References

 5 HIAA. (n.d.). TheFreeDictionary.com. Retrieved August 27, 2023, from https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/5+HIAA

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Psychology: The Prism of Human Behavior

 A Prism of Human Understanding

 The human mind is a complex and fascinating thing. It is capable of great love, creativity, and compassion, but it can also be the source of great pain, suffering, and confusion. Psychology is the study of the human mind and behavior, and it offers a lens through which we can better understand ourselves and others.

Just as a prism can split white light into a rainbow of colors, psychology can help us to see the many different facets of human experience. It can help us to understand our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, and it can help us to make sense of the world around us.

There are many different approaches to psychology, each with its own unique perspective on the human mind. Some psychologists focus on the biological basis of behavior, while others focus on the social and cultural factors that influence our thoughts and feelings. Still others focus on the individual's unique experiences and personal history.

The Prism of Human Behavior

 Just as a prism refracts light into a spectrum of colors, psychology can be seen as a prism that refracts human behavior into its many different facets. By understanding the different factors that influence human behavior, psychologists can help us to understand ourselves and others better.

The Refraction of Light and Mental Disorders

Just as a prism refracts light into a spectrum of colors, mental disorders can refract our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors into a variety of different expressions. By understanding the different factors that contribute to mental disorders, we can better understand how they can shape our experiences.

Some of the factors that can contribute to mental disorders include:

• Genetics: Some mental disorders, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, have a strong genetic component. This means that if you have a family history of a mental disorder, you are more likely to develop it yourself.
• Environment: Our environment can also play a role in the development of mental disorders. For example, childhood trauma can increase the risk of developing anxiety and depression.
• Brain chemistry: Mental disorders can also be caused by imbalances in brain chemistry. For example, people with depression often have low levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that plays a role in mood regulation.
• 
  Lifestyle: Our lifestyle choices can also contribute to the development of mental disorders. For example, smoking and excessive alcohol use can increase the risk of developing mood disorders.
  

When these factors come together, they can create a "prism" that refracts our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors into a variety of different expressions. For example, someone with depression may experience sadness, hopelessness, and fatigue. They may also withdraw from social activities and have difficulty concentrating. Someone with anxiety may experience excessive worry, fear, and restlessness. They may also have difficulty sleeping and concentrating.

By understanding the different factors that contribute to mental disorders, we can better understand how they can shape our experiences. This knowledge can help us to identify the signs and symptoms of mental disorders, seek professional help, and develop effective treatment plans.

 Anorexia Nervosa

With anorexia, the patient thrives on being thin at any cost and this causes the patient's abnormal behaviors that result in a low body weight regardless of the consequences. Amenorrhea is no longer required for someone to be diagnosed with anorexia nervosa. Significantly low weight is defined as a weight that is less than minimally normal for children and adolescents and less than that is minimally expected. The patient has an intense fear of gaining weight or becoming and persistent behavior that interferes with gaining weight, even though they are significantly underweight

    The patient experiences disturbance in the way that they view their body shape and also a persistent lack of recognition of the seriousness of the current low body weight.

There are two types of Anorexia Nervosa

1. The restricting type
1. Patients restrict food intake to maintain their low weight
2. They do not like to eat in front of other people 
2.  Binge-eating/purging type
1. The restrict calories
2. They binge eat and purge

Some example of how patients suffering from anorexia suffer from distorted thinking (Hooley, et al, 2019).

• “I have a rule when I weigh myself. If I’ve gained then I starve the rest of the day. But if I’ve lost, then I starve too.”
• “Bones define who we really are, let them show.”
• “An imperfect body reflects an imperfect person.”
• “Anorexia is not a self-inflicted disease, it’s a self-controlled lifestyle.”
• “It’s not deprivation, it’s liberation.”

Here are some ways someone suffering from anorexia nervosa might try to conceal their weight loss especially if they know that they are about to be weighed.

•  wearing baggy clothes 
•  carrying hidden bulky objects so that they will weigh more when measured by others
• drinking large amounts of water to increase their weight temporarily.

DSM-5 Criteria for. . .

Anorexia Nervosa

1. Restriction of energy intake relative to requirements, leading to a significantly low body weight in the context of age, sex, developmental trajectory, and physical health. Significantly low weight is defined as a weight that is less than minimally normal or, for children and adolescents, less than that minimally expected.
2. Intense fear of gaining weight or of becoming fat, or persistent behavior that interferes with weight gain, even though at a significantly low weight.
3. Disturbance in the way in which one’s body weight or shape is experienced, undue influence of body weight or shape on self-evaluation, or persistent lack of recognition of the seriousness of the current low body weight (Hooley et al, 2019).

• Anorexia is centuries old.
• Religious literature tells of cases of extreme cases of fasting (Hooley, et al., 2019).
• 1689
• Richard Morton - wrote about the first documented cases of anorexia nervosa. An 18-year-old girl and a 16-year-old boy both suffered from what they called at the time "nervous consumption" ( Hooley, et al., 2019).
• The girl died eventually because she refused the treatment.
• 1873
• Charles Lasègue in Paris and Sir William Gull in London
• Both wrote about two different cases and described the same symptoms. 
• One case was a 14-year-old girl who was starving herself. They treated her by getting her to eat light food every few hours.
  

References

Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.).

Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033

Antiretroviral therapy (ART)

Antiretroviral therapy (ART)

 Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is the treatment for HIV infection. It involves taking a combination of medicines every day. ART is recommended for everyone with HIV, regardless of their CD4 count or viral load.

ART does not cure HIV infection, but it can help people with HIV live long, healthy lives. It can also reduce the risk of spreading HIV to others.

HIV medicines work by reducing the amount of HIV (viral load) in the body. This helps people with HIV in two ways:

1. It gives the immune system a chance to recover. HIV attacks and destroys the body's CD4 cells, which are an important part of the immune system. When there is less HIV in the body, the immune system has a better chance to recover and produce more CD4 cells. This can help people with HIV fight off infections and certain HIV-related cancers(HIV Medicines, n.d.).
2. It reduces the risk of spreading HIV to others. When the viral load is low, it is very unlikely that HIV can be transmitted through sex or sharing needles. This is because there is less virus in the body to be passed on to others.
   
   

FDA-Approved HIV Medicines (NIH, 2021):

•  Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NRTIs)

• Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) are a class of antiretroviral drugs that block reverse transcriptase, an enzyme HIV needs to make copies of itself.NRTIs are similar to the building blocks of DNA. When HIV reverse transcriptase incorporates an NRTI into the DNA that it is making, the NRTI stops the DNA from being completed. This prevents HIV from making copies of itself.

• Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NNRTIs)

• Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) are a class of antiretroviral drugs that work by binding to and altering the reverse transcriptase enzyme. Reverse transcriptase is an enzyme that HIV needs to make copies of itself. When NNRTIs bind to reverse transcriptase, they prevent the enzyme from working correctly. This prevents HIV from making copies of itself and helps to control the infection.

• Protease Inhibitors (PIs)
• Protease inhibitors (PIs) are a class of antiretroviral drugs that block protease, an enzyme HIV needs to make copies of itself. Protease is responsible for cutting up the HIV protein into smaller pieces that can then be assembled into new viruses. When PIs block protease, they prevent new HIV from being made(Protease Inhibitor (PI) | NIH, n.d.).

• Fusion Inhibitors
• Fusion inhibitors are a class of antiretroviral drugs that work by blocking the fusion of the HIV envelope with the host CD4 cell membrane. This prevents HIV from entering the CD4 cell. Fusion inhibitors work by binding to the HIV envelope protein gp41. GP41 is a protein that is essential for HIV to fuse with the CD4 cell membrane. When fusion inhibitors bind to gp41, they prevent the protein from changing shape, which is necessary for fusion to occur.

• CCR5 Antagonists
• CCR5 antagonists are a class of antiretroviral drugs that work by blocking the CCR5 coreceptor on the surface of certain immune cells. HIV needs to bind to the CCR5 coreceptor in order to enter the cell, so by blocking CCR5, CCR5 antagonists can prevent HIV from infecting the cell.
  


• Integrase Strand Transfer Inhibitor (INSTIs)

• Integrase inhibitors are a class of antiretroviral drugs that work by blocking HIV integrase, an enzyme that HIV needs to make copies of itself. Integrase is responsible for inserting the HIV genetic material into the DNA of the host cell. By blocking integrase, integrase inhibitors can prevent HIV from infecting the cell and making copies of itself.


• Attachment Inhibitors

• Attachment inhibitors are a class of antiretroviral drugs that work by binding to the gp120 protein on the outer surface of HIV. The gp120 protein is essential for HIV to bind to CD4 cells, so by binding to gp120, attachment inhibitors can prevent HIV from entering CD4 cells.

• Post-Attachment Inhibitors

• The gp120 protein is essential for HIV to bind to CD4 cells. When attachment inhibitors bind to gp120, they prevent HIV from binding to CD4 cells and entering the cell. This prevents HIV from infecting the cell and replicating.
• Capsid Inhibitors
•     The capsid is essential for HIV to replicate. When capsid inhibitors bind to the capsid, they interfere with its ability to protect HIV's genetic material and enzymes. This can prevent HIV from replicating and can help to control the infection.

Pharmacokinetic Enhancers

 PKEs work by slowing down the breakdown of HIV medicine in the body. This allows more of the medicine to reach the bloodstream and be effective in fighting HIV.

Resources

 Abacavir - Patient | NIH. (n.d.). Clinicalinfo.hiv.gov. https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/drugs/abacavir/patient

 HIV Medicines. (n.d.). Medlineplus.gov. https://medlineplus.gov/hivmedicines.html

NIH. (2021, February 8). FDA-Approved HIV Medicines | HIVINFO. Hivinfo.nih.gov. https://hivinfo.nih.gov/understanding-hiv/fact-sheets/fda-approved-hiv-medicines

Protease Inhibitor (PI) | NIH. (n.d.). Clinicalinfo.hiv.gov. https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/glossary/protease-inhibitor-pi

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Genetic and Neurochemical Factors That Lead to Mood Disorders.

Genetic and Neurochemical Factors That Lead to Mood Disorders

•  Family and twin studies suggest that there is a moderate genetic contribution to major depressive disorder (MDD).
• The serotonin-transporter gene is one candidate gene that may be involved in MDD.
• A study by Caspi and colleagues found that people with the short allele of the serotonin-transporter gene were more likely to develop MDD if they had experienced four or more stressful life events in the past 5 years.
• However, a later study by Risch and colleagues challenged these results.
• A more recent study by Culverhouse and colleagues found that the genotype-environment interaction between the serotonin-transporter gene and stressful life events does not exist.

These findings highlight the importance of replication in the scientific process, as well as the difficulties associated with mapping links between subtle variations in the human genome and the occurrence of depressive illness (Hooley et al, 2019)

•  The monoamine theory of depression states that depression is caused by a depletion of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin.
•  Not all patients with depression have low levels of these neurotransmitters, and even when levels are low, they may not return to normal after treatment with antidepressant medication.
• More recent research suggests that dopamine dysfunction may also play a role in depression. Dopamine is involved in the experience of pleasure and reward, and its depletion may contribute to the anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure) that is a common symptom of depression.

No single theory of depression has been able to fully explain the disorder. However, research suggests that depression is caused by a complex interplay of genetic, environmental, and biological factors.

References

Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033

 

 Hoarding

• Hoarding is a condition that has received increased research attention in recent years. It was originally thought of as a symptom of OCD but now is considered a separate disorder.
• Compulsive hoarding occurs in approximately 3 to 5 percent of adults and in  10 to 40 percent of people diagnosed with OCD.
  

• People with hoarding disorder acquire and fail to discard many possessions that are of limited value.
• Their homes are extremely cluttered and disorganized so much that it interferes with their daily activities. Some people have been buried alive in their homes by their possessions.
• Neuroimaging research has found that people with compulsive hoarding show patterns of brain activation that are different from people with OCD who do not have hoarding symptoms.
• Compulsive hoarding is associated with an increased risk of fire, falling, poor sanitation, and serious health problems.
• At-home treatments that include home visits have shown some effectiveness. These treatments work partially by changing the patient's beliefs about the importance of saving each of their possessions.

References

Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033

 

IF ALL ELSE FAILS: HOW TO CORRECTLY CLEAN A SYRINGE

 NEVER REUSE SYRINGES!!!

⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛⬛📚📚📚

HIV can survive in a used syringe for up to 42 days, depending on temperature and other factors(CDC, 2020). 

• 
  If you only have one syringe for whatever reason then these steps must be followed before reusing the syringe and there are no exceptions.
• If surfaces and cookers are not cleaned properly, HepC can still remain on the surfaces even if there is no visible blood. 

Supplies You Need 

1. Three clean containers. cups bowls jars...etc
2. Clean water
3. Bleach

https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/library/pocket-guides/cdc-hiv-pocket-guide-cleaning-syringes.pdf

Steps You Need to Follow

1. Wash your hands
2. Fill one cup with bleach and two cups with clean water.
1. label cups 
1. Cup A is clean water
2. Cup B is bleach
3. Cup C is clean water 
3. From Cup A which is clean water, fill the syringe with the clean water
4. Shake or tap the syringe for thirty seconds.
5. Squirt out the water from the syringe, but do not squirt the water back into one of the cups
6. Repeat steps 3, 4, and 5 until you cannot see any blood in the water. It is not uncommon to have to repeat steps 3,4, and 5 a few times.
7. Now that the syringe is empty fill the syringe up with bleach from cup B
8. Tap or shake the syringe that has bleach in it for thirty seconds.
9. Squirt the bleach out of the syringe, but do not squirt the bleach back into any of the cups
10. Now fill the syringe with the clean water from cup C
11. Tap or shake the syringe for thirty seconds
12. And finally, squirt the water out of the syringe.

HCV is one of the most common bloodborne pathogens in the United States. It is highly infectious and can survive on dry surfaces and equipment for up to 6 weeks, resulting in a longer period for potential transmission than for other bloodborne pathogens (Viral Hepatitis Surveillance and Case Management - Hepatitis c | CDC, 2023).  

 

References 

 

CDC. (2020, November 3). HIV and Injection Drug Use | HIV Transmission | HIV Basics | HIV/AIDS | CDC. Www.cdc.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/hiv-transmission/injection-drug-use.html

‌ To clean a syringe correctly, you must do all nine steps: 3 A. Rinse with clean water. (n.d.). https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/library/pocket-guides/cdc-hiv-pocket-guide-cleaning-syringes.pdf

Viral Hepatitis Surveillance and Case Management - Hepatitis C | CDC. (2023, July 18). Www.cdc.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/statistics/surveillanceguidance/HepatitisC.htm#:~:text=It%20is%20highly%20infectious%20and

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