Psychology: The Prism of Human Behavior

 A Prism of Human Understanding

 The human mind is a complex and fascinating thing. It is capable of great love, creativity, and compassion, but it can also be the source of great pain, suffering, and confusion. Psychology is the study of the human mind and behavior, and it offers a lens through which we can better understand ourselves and others.

Just as a prism can split white light into a rainbow of colors, psychology can help us to see the many different facets of human experience. It can help us to understand our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, and it can help us to make sense of the world around us.

There are many different approaches to psychology, each with its own unique perspective on the human mind. Some psychologists focus on the biological basis of behavior, while others focus on the social and cultural factors that influence our thoughts and feelings. Still others focus on the individual's unique experiences and personal history.

The Prism of Human Behavior

 Just as a prism refracts light into a spectrum of colors, psychology can be seen as a prism that refracts human behavior into its many different facets. By understanding the different factors that influence human behavior, psychologists can help us to understand ourselves and others better.

The Refraction of Light and Mental Disorders

Just as a prism refracts light into a spectrum of colors, mental disorders can refract our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors into a variety of different expressions. By understanding the different factors that contribute to mental disorders, we can better understand how they can shape our experiences.

Some of the factors that can contribute to mental disorders include:

• Genetics: Some mental disorders, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, have a strong genetic component. This means that if you have a family history of a mental disorder, you are more likely to develop it yourself.
• Environment: Our environment can also play a role in the development of mental disorders. For example, childhood trauma can increase the risk of developing anxiety and depression.
• Brain chemistry: Mental disorders can also be caused by imbalances in brain chemistry. For example, people with depression often have low levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that plays a role in mood regulation.
• 
  Lifestyle: Our lifestyle choices can also contribute to the development of mental disorders. For example, smoking and excessive alcohol use can increase the risk of developing mood disorders.
  

When these factors come together, they can create a "prism" that refracts our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors into a variety of different expressions. For example, someone with depression may experience sadness, hopelessness, and fatigue. They may also withdraw from social activities and have difficulty concentrating. Someone with anxiety may experience excessive worry, fear, and restlessness. They may also have difficulty sleeping and concentrating.

By understanding the different factors that contribute to mental disorders, we can better understand how they can shape our experiences. This knowledge can help us to identify the signs and symptoms of mental disorders, seek professional help, and develop effective treatment plans.

 Anorexia Nervosa

With anorexia, the patient thrives on being thin at any cost and this causes the patient's abnormal behaviors that result in a low body weight regardless of the consequences. Amenorrhea is no longer required for someone to be diagnosed with anorexia nervosa. Significantly low weight is defined as a weight that is less than minimally normal for children and adolescents and less than that is minimally expected. The patient has an intense fear of gaining weight or becoming and persistent behavior that interferes with gaining weight, even though they are significantly underweight

    The patient experiences disturbance in the way that they view their body shape and also a persistent lack of recognition of the seriousness of the current low body weight.

There are two types of Anorexia Nervosa

1. The restricting type
1. Patients restrict food intake to maintain their low weight
2. They do not like to eat in front of other people 
2.  Binge-eating/purging type
1. The restrict calories
2. They binge eat and purge

Some example of how patients suffering from anorexia suffer from distorted thinking (Hooley, et al, 2019).

• “I have a rule when I weigh myself. If I’ve gained then I starve the rest of the day. But if I’ve lost, then I starve too.”
• “Bones define who we really are, let them show.”
• “An imperfect body reflects an imperfect person.”
• “Anorexia is not a self-inflicted disease, it’s a self-controlled lifestyle.”
• “It’s not deprivation, it’s liberation.”

Here are some ways someone suffering from anorexia nervosa might try to conceal their weight loss especially if they know that they are about to be weighed.

•  wearing baggy clothes 
•  carrying hidden bulky objects so that they will weigh more when measured by others
• drinking large amounts of water to increase their weight temporarily.

DSM-5 Criteria for. . .

Anorexia Nervosa

1. Restriction of energy intake relative to requirements, leading to a significantly low body weight in the context of age, sex, developmental trajectory, and physical health. Significantly low weight is defined as a weight that is less than minimally normal or, for children and adolescents, less than that minimally expected.
2. Intense fear of gaining weight or of becoming fat, or persistent behavior that interferes with weight gain, even though at a significantly low weight.
3. Disturbance in the way in which one’s body weight or shape is experienced, undue influence of body weight or shape on self-evaluation, or persistent lack of recognition of the seriousness of the current low body weight (Hooley et al, 2019).

• Anorexia is centuries old.
• Religious literature tells of cases of extreme cases of fasting (Hooley, et al., 2019).
• 1689
• Richard Morton - wrote about the first documented cases of anorexia nervosa. An 18-year-old girl and a 16-year-old boy both suffered from what they called at the time "nervous consumption" ( Hooley, et al., 2019).
• The girl died eventually because she refused the treatment.
• 1873
• Charles Lasègue in Paris and Sir William Gull in London
• Both wrote about two different cases and described the same symptoms. 
• One case was a 14-year-old girl who was starving herself. They treated her by getting her to eat light food every few hours.
  

References

Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.).

Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033

Antiretroviral therapy (ART)

Antiretroviral therapy (ART)

 Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is the treatment for HIV infection. It involves taking a combination of medicines every day. ART is recommended for everyone with HIV, regardless of their CD4 count or viral load.

ART does not cure HIV infection, but it can help people with HIV live long, healthy lives. It can also reduce the risk of spreading HIV to others.

HIV medicines work by reducing the amount of HIV (viral load) in the body. This helps people with HIV in two ways:

1. It gives the immune system a chance to recover. HIV attacks and destroys the body's CD4 cells, which are an important part of the immune system. When there is less HIV in the body, the immune system has a better chance to recover and produce more CD4 cells. This can help people with HIV fight off infections and certain HIV-related cancers(HIV Medicines, n.d.).
2. It reduces the risk of spreading HIV to others. When the viral load is low, it is very unlikely that HIV can be transmitted through sex or sharing needles. This is because there is less virus in the body to be passed on to others.
   
   

FDA-Approved HIV Medicines (NIH, 2021):

•  Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NRTIs)

• Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) are a class of antiretroviral drugs that block reverse transcriptase, an enzyme HIV needs to make copies of itself.NRTIs are similar to the building blocks of DNA. When HIV reverse transcriptase incorporates an NRTI into the DNA that it is making, the NRTI stops the DNA from being completed. This prevents HIV from making copies of itself.

• Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NNRTIs)

• Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) are a class of antiretroviral drugs that work by binding to and altering the reverse transcriptase enzyme. Reverse transcriptase is an enzyme that HIV needs to make copies of itself. When NNRTIs bind to reverse transcriptase, they prevent the enzyme from working correctly. This prevents HIV from making copies of itself and helps to control the infection.

• Protease Inhibitors (PIs)
• Protease inhibitors (PIs) are a class of antiretroviral drugs that block protease, an enzyme HIV needs to make copies of itself. Protease is responsible for cutting up the HIV protein into smaller pieces that can then be assembled into new viruses. When PIs block protease, they prevent new HIV from being made(Protease Inhibitor (PI) | NIH, n.d.).

• Fusion Inhibitors
• Fusion inhibitors are a class of antiretroviral drugs that work by blocking the fusion of the HIV envelope with the host CD4 cell membrane. This prevents HIV from entering the CD4 cell. Fusion inhibitors work by binding to the HIV envelope protein gp41. GP41 is a protein that is essential for HIV to fuse with the CD4 cell membrane. When fusion inhibitors bind to gp41, they prevent the protein from changing shape, which is necessary for fusion to occur.

• CCR5 Antagonists
• CCR5 antagonists are a class of antiretroviral drugs that work by blocking the CCR5 coreceptor on the surface of certain immune cells. HIV needs to bind to the CCR5 coreceptor in order to enter the cell, so by blocking CCR5, CCR5 antagonists can prevent HIV from infecting the cell.
  


• Integrase Strand Transfer Inhibitor (INSTIs)

• Integrase inhibitors are a class of antiretroviral drugs that work by blocking HIV integrase, an enzyme that HIV needs to make copies of itself. Integrase is responsible for inserting the HIV genetic material into the DNA of the host cell. By blocking integrase, integrase inhibitors can prevent HIV from infecting the cell and making copies of itself.


• Attachment Inhibitors

• Attachment inhibitors are a class of antiretroviral drugs that work by binding to the gp120 protein on the outer surface of HIV. The gp120 protein is essential for HIV to bind to CD4 cells, so by binding to gp120, attachment inhibitors can prevent HIV from entering CD4 cells.

• Post-Attachment Inhibitors

• The gp120 protein is essential for HIV to bind to CD4 cells. When attachment inhibitors bind to gp120, they prevent HIV from binding to CD4 cells and entering the cell. This prevents HIV from infecting the cell and replicating.
• Capsid Inhibitors
•     The capsid is essential for HIV to replicate. When capsid inhibitors bind to the capsid, they interfere with its ability to protect HIV's genetic material and enzymes. This can prevent HIV from replicating and can help to control the infection.

Pharmacokinetic Enhancers

 PKEs work by slowing down the breakdown of HIV medicine in the body. This allows more of the medicine to reach the bloodstream and be effective in fighting HIV.

Resources

 Abacavir - Patient | NIH. (n.d.). Clinicalinfo.hiv.gov. https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/drugs/abacavir/patient

 HIV Medicines. (n.d.). Medlineplus.gov. https://medlineplus.gov/hivmedicines.html

NIH. (2021, February 8). FDA-Approved HIV Medicines | HIVINFO. Hivinfo.nih.gov. https://hivinfo.nih.gov/understanding-hiv/fact-sheets/fda-approved-hiv-medicines

Protease Inhibitor (PI) | NIH. (n.d.). Clinicalinfo.hiv.gov. https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/glossary/protease-inhibitor-pi

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Genetic and Neurochemical Factors That Lead to Mood Disorders.

Genetic and Neurochemical Factors That Lead to Mood Disorders

•  Family and twin studies suggest that there is a moderate genetic contribution to major depressive disorder (MDD).
• The serotonin-transporter gene is one candidate gene that may be involved in MDD.
• A study by Caspi and colleagues found that people with the short allele of the serotonin-transporter gene were more likely to develop MDD if they had experienced four or more stressful life events in the past 5 years.
• However, a later study by Risch and colleagues challenged these results.
• A more recent study by Culverhouse and colleagues found that the genotype-environment interaction between the serotonin-transporter gene and stressful life events does not exist.

These findings highlight the importance of replication in the scientific process, as well as the difficulties associated with mapping links between subtle variations in the human genome and the occurrence of depressive illness (Hooley et al, 2019)

•  The monoamine theory of depression states that depression is caused by a depletion of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin.
•  Not all patients with depression have low levels of these neurotransmitters, and even when levels are low, they may not return to normal after treatment with antidepressant medication.
• More recent research suggests that dopamine dysfunction may also play a role in depression. Dopamine is involved in the experience of pleasure and reward, and its depletion may contribute to the anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure) that is a common symptom of depression.

No single theory of depression has been able to fully explain the disorder. However, research suggests that depression is caused by a complex interplay of genetic, environmental, and biological factors.

References

Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033

 

 Hoarding

• Hoarding is a condition that has received increased research attention in recent years. It was originally thought of as a symptom of OCD but now is considered a separate disorder.
• Compulsive hoarding occurs in approximately 3 to 5 percent of adults and in  10 to 40 percent of people diagnosed with OCD.
  

• People with hoarding disorder acquire and fail to discard many possessions that are of limited value.
• Their homes are extremely cluttered and disorganized so much that it interferes with their daily activities. Some people have been buried alive in their homes by their possessions.
• Neuroimaging research has found that people with compulsive hoarding show patterns of brain activation that are different from people with OCD who do not have hoarding symptoms.
• Compulsive hoarding is associated with an increased risk of fire, falling, poor sanitation, and serious health problems.
• At-home treatments that include home visits have shown some effectiveness. These treatments work partially by changing the patient's beliefs about the importance of saving each of their possessions.

References

Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033

 

The Opioid Epidemic

       The Opioid Epidemic

The opioid epidemic is a serious public health crisis in the United States. Opioids are a class of drugs that include prescription painkillers, heroin, and synthetic opioids like fentanyl. They work by binding to opioid receptors in the brain, which can lead to a feeling of euphoria and pain relief. Opioid addiction is a chronic disease that can be difficult to treat. People who are addicted to opioids may experience withdrawal symptoms if they stop using the drug, and they may also develop a tolerance to the drug, meaning that they need to take more and more of it to achieve the same effect. The opioid epidemic has been caused by a number of factors, including the overprescription of opioid painkillers, the availability of heroin, and the use of synthetic opioids like fentanyl. The overprescription of opioid painkillers began in the early 1990s when pharmaceutical companies marketed these drugs as safe and effective for the treatment of chronic pain. As a result, the number of opioid prescriptions in the United States increased dramatically.

Heroin is a cheaper and more potent alternative to prescription painkillers. It is also more easily available, as it can be produced illegally. Synthetic opioids like fentanyl are even more potent than heroin. They are often added to heroin or other drugs without the user's knowledge, which can lead to overdose and death. The opioid epidemic has had a devastating impact on the United States. In 2017, there were over 70,000 drug overdose deaths in the United States, and the majority of these deaths involved opioids.

There are a number of things that can be done to address the opioid epidemic. 

• Reducing the overprescription of opioid painkillers
• Increasing access to treatment for opioid addiction
• Educating the public about the dangers of opioids
• Cracking down on the illegal sale of opioids

The opioid epidemic is a complex problem, but it is one that can be solved. By working together, we can save lives and prevent future tragedies.

If you or someone you know is struggling with opioid addiction, there is help available. Please reach out to a treatment provider or call the National Drug Helpline at 1-800-662-HELP (4357).

Resources

Capuzzi, D., & Stauffer, M. D. (2019). Foundations of Addictions Counseling (4th ed.).Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135169858

 

 Psychological Models of Addiction

Addiction is a complex disorder that can have many causes. While there is no single theory that can fully explain addiction, psychological models can provide some insights into the underlying factors that contribute to this condition.

Cognitive-behavioral model

The cognitive-behavioral model of addiction focuses on the role of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in the development and maintenance of addiction. This model suggests that people who are addicted to substances or behaviors may have negative thoughts and beliefs about themselves, others, and the world. These negative thoughts can lead to feelings of anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem. In turn, these negative feelings can trigger addictive behaviors as a way to cope with these emotions.

The cognitive-behavioral model also emphasizes the role of learning in addiction. This model suggests that people learn to associate certain cues or triggers with the rewarding effects of addictive substances or behaviors. Over time, these cues can become powerful triggers that lead to cravings and relapse.

Learning model

The learning model of addiction is based on the principles of classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with a rewarding stimulus, such as the feeling of euphoria that comes from using a drug. Over time, the neutral stimulus (e.g., the sight of a drug) can become a conditioned stimulus that triggers cravings and urges to use the drug.

Operant conditioning occurs when a behavior is followed by a consequence. In the case of addiction, the behavior of using a substance or engaging in behavior is followed by a pleasurable consequence (e.g., the feeling of euphoria). This positive reinforcement increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the future.

Psychodynamic model

The psychodynamic model of addiction views addiction as a way of coping with underlying psychological issues. This model suggests that people who are addicted to substances or behaviors may have unresolved conflicts or trauma from their past. They may use addictive substances or behaviors as a way to avoid dealing with these difficult emotions.

The psychodynamic model also emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind in addiction. This model suggests that people who are addicted may not be aware of the underlying reasons for their addiction. They may need therapy to help them understand and address these unconscious issues.

Personality theory model

The personality theory model of addiction views addiction as a way of expressing certain personality traits. This model suggests that people who are addicted may have personality traits such as impulsivity, low self-esteem, or a need for control. These personality traits can make it more likely that people will engage in addictive behaviors.

Conclusion

The psychological models of addiction described above are just a few of the many theories that have been proposed to explain this complex disorder. While no single theory can fully explain addiction, these models can provide some insights into the underlying factors that contribute to this condition.

If you or someone you know is struggling with addiction, there are many resources available to help. Please reach out for help if you need it.

Here are some additional resources for people struggling with addiction:

1. The National Institute on Drug Abuse: https://www.drugabuse.gov/
2. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration: https://www.samhsa.gov/
3. The National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence: https://www.ncadd.org/
4. The American Psychological Association: https://www.apa.org/topics/addiction/

 

References

 Capuzzi, D., & Stauffer, M. D. (2019). Foundations of Addictions Counseling (4th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135169858

Models for Explaining the Etiology of Addiction: The Moral Model

Models for Explaining the Etiology of Addiction: The Moral Model

 The moral model of addiction is a belief system that views addiction as a result of personal choice and moral weakness. Proponents of this model believe that addicts are responsible for their own addiction and should be punished for their behavior. This model is often based on religious beliefs and has been influential in the legal system.

The moral model is not supported by scientific evidence. There is no evidence that addicts are morally weak or that they choose to be addicted. Addiction is a complex disorder that is influenced by a variety of factors, including genetics, environment, and mental health.

The moral model can be harmful to addicts. It can lead to feelings of shame and guilt, which can make it more difficult for them to seek help. It can also lead to discrimination and criminalization, which can make it harder for them to get jobs, housing, and other essential services.

The moral model is outdated and should be replaced with a more scientifically accurate model of addiction. This model should focus on understanding the causes of addiction and developing effective treatments. It should also focus on reducing stigma and discrimination against addicts.

Here are some additional points to consider:

The moral model is often used to justify punitive policies towards addicts, such as incarceration.

The moral model can be used to blame addicts for their own suffering, which can make it more difficult for them to recover.

The moral model can be used to deny addicts access to treatment and other resources.

It is important to remember that addiction is a complex disorder that is not the fault of the individual. Addicts need our compassion and support, not our judgment.

Resources

Capuzzi, D., & Stauffer, M. D. (2019). Foundations of Addictions Counseling (4th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135169858
 

The History of Drug Laws in the United States

 The History of Drug Laws in the United States

The history of drug laws in the United States is a long and complex one, dating back to the late 19th century. During this time, there was growing concern about the use of drugs in patent medicines and products sold over the counter. Cocaine, opium, and morphine were common ingredients in many potions, and even Coca-Cola once contained cocaine.

In an effort to control the use of these drugs, the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 was passed. This act required labels on drugs contained in products, including opium, morphine, and heroin. The Harrison Act of 1914 went even further, taxing opium and coca products with registration and record-keeping requirements.

The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 was the next major piece of legislation to address drug use. This act classified drugs according to their medical use, the potential for abuse, and the possibility of creating dependence. According to Uhl (2023), The five classes of drugs are:

1. Schedule I: Drugs with no currently accepted medical use and a high potential for abuse
2. Schedule II: Drugs with a high potential for abuse but also a legitimate medical use
3. Schedule III: Drugs with moderate potential for abuse and a legitimate medical use
4. Schedule IV: Drugs with low potential for abuse and a legitimate medical use
5. Schedule V: Drugs with very low potential for abuse and a legitimate medical use

Since the passage of the Controlled Substances Act, there have been a number of changes to the drug laws in the United States. For example, the Controlled Substances Analogue Enforcement Act of 1986 made it illegal to manufacture or distribute drugs that are similar to controlled substances. And the Prescription Drug Abuse Prevention Act of 2010 increased penalties for drug trafficking and abuse.

The current drug laws in the United States are a complex and controversial issue. There is no easy answer to the question of how to best address drug use and addiction. However, it is important to have a clear understanding of the history of drug laws in order to make informed decisions about the future.

The War on Drugs

In the 1970s, the United States government launched a War on Drugs. This was a major initiative to reduce the illegal drug trade and drug use. The War on Drugs has been criticized for its high costs and its focus on incarceration rather than prevention and treatment.

One of the most controversial aspects of the War on Drugs has been the use of mandatory minimum sentences for drug offenses. These sentences have resulted in the incarceration of large numbers of people, many of whom are nonviolent offenders (Foundations of Addictions Counseling, n.d.).

The War on Drugs has also been criticized for its disproportionate impact on minority communities. African Americans and Latinos are more likely to be arrested and convicted of drug offenses than white Americans (Foundations of Addictions Counseling, n.d.).

The Future of Drug Laws

The future of drug laws in the United States is uncertain. There is growing support for decriminalizing or legalizing certain drugs, such as marijuana. However, there is also opposition to these changes, and it is unclear whether they will be implemented.

The debate over drug laws is likely to continue for many years to come. It is a complex issue with no easy answers. However, it is important to have a clear understanding of the history of drug laws in order to make informed decisions about the future.

In addition to the information above, here are some other things to consider when thinking about the future of drug laws in the United States:

• The rise of the opioid crisis
• The increasing availability of synthetic drugs
• The role of technology in drug trafficking
• The need for more effective prevention and treatment programs

The future of drug laws in the United States is uncertain, but it is clear that this is an issue that will continue to be debated for many years to come.

Resources

 Capuzzi, D., & Stauffer, M. D. (2019). Foundations of Addictions Counseling (4th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135169858

Foundations of Addictions Counseling 1292041943, 1269374508, 9781292041940, 9781269374507. (n.d.). Dokumen.pub. Retrieved August 17, 2023, from   https://dokumen.pub/foundations-addictions-counseling-  

Uhl, G. R. (2023). Selecting the appropriate hurdles and endpoints for pentilludin, a novel antiaddiction pharmacotherapeutic targeting the receptor type protein tyrosine phosphatase D. Frontiers in                 Psychiatry, 14, 1031283. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1031283 

 The History of Addiction Counseling in the United States

Addiction counseling is a relatively new field of specialization within the counseling profession. However, the history of addiction counseling in the United States can be traced back to the early 1800s, when the first temperance movements began to emerge. These movements were aimed at reducing the consumption of alcohol, and they often involved moral persuasion and religious conversion.

In the late 1800s, the first inebriate homes were established. These were residential treatment facilities for people who were struggling with alcohol addiction. The first inebriate homes were modeled after asylums, and they often used aversive conditioning techniques to treat addiction.

In the early 1900s, the focus of addiction treatment began to shift towards a more holistic approach. This approach emphasized the importance of addressing the psychological and social factors that contribute to addiction.

In the 1930s, Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) was founded. AA is a self-help group for people who are struggling with alcohol addiction. AA is based on the 12-step model of recovery, and it has been credited with helping millions of people achieve sobriety.

In the 1960s, the field of addiction counseling began to professionalize. The first professional organizations for addiction counselors were established, and the first graduate programs in addiction counseling were developed.

Today, addiction counseling is a well-established profession. Addiction counselors work in a variety of settings, including hospitals, clinics, private practices, and prisons. They provide a variety of services, including individual and group counseling, family therapy, and case management.

The role of addiction counselors is essential in the fight against addiction. They provide hope and support to people who are struggling with addiction, and they help them to achieve sobriety and recovery.

The Role of Professional Counselors in Addiction Treatment

Professional counselors play a vital role in addiction treatment. They provide a variety of services, including:

• Individual and group counseling
• Family therapy
• Case management
• Substance abuse education
• Relapse prevention planning

Counselors help clients to understand their addiction, develop coping skills, and build a strong support network. They also work with clients to address the underlying issues that may have contributed to their addiction, such as mental health problems, trauma, or stress.

The Importance of Professional Licensure

In order to practice addiction counseling, it is important to be licensed by a state

or national board. This ensures that counselors have met certain educational and training requirements. It also ensures that counselors are held accountable for their professional conduct.

If you are struggling with addiction, it is important to seek help from a qualified professional counselor. A counselor can help you to understand your addiction, develop coping skills, and build a strong support network. With the right help, you can achieve sobriety and recovery.

Resources for Addiction Treatment

• The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA): 1-800-662-HELP (4357)
• The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA): 1-800-662-HELP (4357)
• The National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence (NCADD): 1-800-662-HELP (4357)
• The American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM): 1-888-637-2726

References

 Capuzzi, David, and Mark D. Stauffer. Foundations of Addictions Counseling. Available     from: VitalSource Bookshelf, (4th Edition). Pearson Education (US), 2019.

What are Personality Disorders?

 What are Personality Disorders?

Personality disorders are a group of mental health conditions that involve long-lasting, inflexible patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. These patterns cause significant distress or problems in a person's life, and they can make it difficult to function at work, school, or in relationships.

Personality disorders are not caused by a single event, but rather by a combination of factors, including genetics, environment, and early childhood experiences. They are often diagnosed in adolescence or early adulthood, but they can develop at any age.

Three clusters of personality disorders

The symptoms of personality disorders can vary widely, but some common signs include:

• Problems with self-image or self-esteem
• Difficulty forming and maintaining relationships
• Extreme emotional reactions
• Unrealistic or inflexible expectations of others
• Impaired impulse control
• Difficulty coping with stress

If you think you or someone you know may have a personality disorder, it is important to seek professional help. There are effective treatments available, such as psychotherapy and medication.

How are Personality Disorders Treated?

The treatment for personality disorders typically involves a combination of psychotherapy and medication. Psychotherapy can help people with personality disorders to understand their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, and to develop healthier coping mechanisms. Medication can help to manage some of the symptoms of personality disorders, such as anxiety or depression.

The specific type of psychotherapy that is most effective for personality disorders varies depending on the individual. Some common types of psychotherapy include:

• Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT): CBT helps people to identify and change their negative thoughts and behaviors.
• Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT): DBT teaches people skills to manage their emotions and relationships.
• Schema therapy: Schema therapy helps people to identify and change their core beliefs and schemas, which are negative patterns of thinking and feeling that contribute to personality disorders.
• Medication is not always necessary for the treatment of personality disorders, but it can be helpful in some cases. The specific type of medication that is prescribed will depend on the individual's symptoms.

 Some common medications used to treat personality disorders include:

• Antidepressants: Antidepressants can help to manage symptoms of anxiety and depression.
• Antipsychotics: Antipsychotics can help to manage symptoms of delusions and hallucinations.
• Mood stabilizers: Mood stabilizers can help to manage symptoms of mood swings.

Living with a Personality Disorder

Living with a personality disorder can be challenging, but it is important to remember that you are not alone. There are many people who are living with personality disorders and who are able to lead fulfilling lives.

If you have a personality disorder, it is important to seek professional help. With treatment, you can learn to manage your symptoms and live a full and productive life.

Here are some tips for living with a personality disorder:

• Educate yourself about your disorder. The more you know about your disorder, the better equipped you will be to manage it.
• Find a therapist who specializes in personality disorders. A therapist can help you to understand your disorder and develop coping mechanisms.
• Join a support group. Talking to others who have personality disorders can be helpful and supportive.
• Take care of yourself. Make sure to get enough sleep, eat healthy foods, and exercise regularly.
• Don't give up. Living with a personality disorder can be challenging, but it is important to remember that you are not alone and that there is help available.

References

Hooley, Jill, M. et al. Abnormal Psychology. Available from: VitalSource Bookshelf, (18th Edition). Pearson Education (US), 2019.

Huntington's Disease: A Degenerative Brain Disorder

 Huntington's Disease: A Degenerative Brain Disorder

Huntington's disease is a rare, inherited neurodegenerative disorder that affects about 1 in every 10,000 people. It is caused by a mutation in the Huntingtin gene, which is located on chromosome 4. This mutation leads to the production of an abnormal protein that damages brain cells.

The symptoms of Huntington's disease usually begin in midlife, between the ages of 30 and 50. The first symptoms are often subtle and may include mood changes, personality changes, and difficulty with thinking and concentration. As the disease progresses, people with Huntington's disease develop involuntary movements (chorea), cognitive decline, and dementia.

There is currently no cure for Huntington's disease. Treatment is aimed at managing the symptoms and improving the quality of life. Medications can be used to treat the chorea and other movement disorders. Physical therapy and occupational therapy can help to improve mobility and function. Speech therapy can help to improve communication.

Genetic testing is available for people who are at risk of developing Huntington's disease. This testing can be done before symptoms appear, but it is a personal decision whether or not to get tested.

If you are considering genetic testing for Huntington's disease, it is important to talk to your doctor about the risks and benefits. You should also talk to a genetic counselor, who can help you understand the results of the test and make decisions about your future. Here are some additional things to know about Huntington's disease:

• The disease is progressive, meaning that the symptoms get worse over time.
• There is no cure for Huntington's disease, but there are treatments that can help manage the symptoms.
• The disease is inherited, so people with a family history of Huntington's disease are at increased risk of developing the disease.
• The average life expectancy for people with Huntington's disease is 10 to 20 years after the onset of symptoms.

If you are concerned about Huntington's disease, talk to your doctor. They can help you assess your risk and discuss your options.

What would I do if I was in this situation?

If I was in the situation of knowing that I had a 50% chance of developing Huntington's disease, I would carefully consider whether or not to get genetic testing. There are many factors to consider, such as my age, my family history, and my personal beliefs. Ultimately, the decision of whether or not to get tested is a personal one.

If I did decide to get tested, I would want to do it with the support of a genetic counselor. A genetic counselor can help me understand the risks and benefits of testing, and they can help me make the decision that is right for me.

I would also want to be prepared for the possibility of a positive test result. If I tested positive for Huntington's disease, I would need to start planning for the future. I would need to think about how I would tell my family and friends, and I would need to make decisions about my care.

It is a difficult decision, but I believe that it is important to have all the information available to me so that I can make the best decision for myself and my family.

Resources

 Hooley, Jill, M. et al. Abnormal Psychology. Available from: VitalSource Bookshelf, (18th Edition).   Pearson Education (US), 2019.     

What is Cyclothymic Disorder?

 What is Cyclothymic Disorder?

Cyclothymic disorder is a type of mood disorder that is characterized by periods of hypomania (elevated mood) and depression. The mood swings in cyclothymic disorder are not as severe as those seen in bipolar disorder, but they can still have a significant impact on a person's life.

The symptoms of hypomania in cyclothymic disorder include:

• Increased energy and activity
• Increased talkativeness
• Racing thoughts
• Decreased need for sleep
• Increased self-esteem
• Increased distractibility
• Impulsive or risky behavior

The symptoms of depression in cyclothymic disorder include:

1. Sadness
2. Loss of interest or pleasure in activities
3. Fatigue
4. Difficulty concentrating
5. Changes in appetite or weight
6. Sleep problems
7. Thoughts of death or suicide

To be diagnosed with cyclothymic disorder, a person must experience at least two years of mood swings that meet the criteria for hypomania and depression. The mood swings must also cause significant distress or impairment in a person's life.

Cyclothymic disorder is often treated with medication and/or therapy. Medications that are used to treat cyclothymic disorder include mood stabilizers, such as lithium and lamotrigine. Therapy can help people with cyclothymic disorder learn how to manage their mood swings and improve their coping skills.

People with cyclothymic disorder are at an increased risk of developing full-blown bipolar disorder. If you are experiencing symptoms of cyclothymic disorder, it is important to see a doctor or mental health professional for diagnosis and treatment.

References

 Hooley, Jill, M. et al. Abnormal Psychology. Available from: VitalSource Bookshelf, (18th      Edition). Pearson Education (US), 2019.

Rape and its Aftermath:

 Rape and its Aftermath:

Traditionally, rape has been classified as a sex crime, and society has assumed that a rapist is motivated by lust. However, in the 1970s some feminist scholars began to challenge this view, arguing that rape is motivated by the need to dominate, to assert power, and to humiliate a victim rather than by sexual desire for her. From the perspective of the victim, rape is always an act of violence and is certainly not a sexually pleasurable experience, whatever the rapist’s motivation.

While much of the motivation for rape may stem from a desire to dominate or humiliate others, there are many compelling reasons why sexual motivation is often, if not always, a very important factor too. The age distribution of rape victims includes a very high proportion of women in their teens and early 20s, who are generally considered the most sexually attractive. This age distribution is quite different from the distribution of other violent crimes. Furthermore, rapists usually cite sexual motivation as a very important cause of their actions.

In addition to the physical trauma inflicted on a victim, the psychological trauma of rape may be severe. A rape may lead to PTSD in a substantial number of female victims and can have a negative impact on a victim’s sexual functioning and on her marriage or other intimate relationships. Although there has been little systematic study of men who have been raped, one study revealed that nearly all experienced some long-term psychological distress following rape.

While there is a clear perpetrator in all instances of rape and sexual assault, there remains an unfortunate myth of “victim-precipitated” rape—a position often invoked by defense attorneys trying to prevent the perpetrator from being charged with rape. According to this view, a victim is regarded as the cause of the crime on such grounds as the alleged provocativeness of her clothing or her past sexual behavior. Fortunately, rape shield laws began to be introduced in the 1970s to protect rape victims.

A recent example of the complexity inherent in the legal situation of rape prosecution is that of Dominique Strauss-Kahn (DSK), who was accused by a New York City hotel worker of sexually assaulting her when she entered his hotel room to clean it. A police investigation confirmed that sexual contact had occurred, but DSK insisted that it was consensual. Subsequently, another woman came forward accusing him of raping her years earlier in France. However, the case unraveled when prosecutors learned that DSK’s accuser had lied about other matters. The charges were dropped.

In conclusion, rape is a complex issue with many factors at play. It can have significant physical and psychological consequences for its victims. It is important for society to continue to work towards preventing this crime and supporting its victims.

 References

 

 Hooley, Jill, M. et al. Abnormal Psychology. Available from: VitalSource Bookshelf, (18th Edition).                                   Pearson Education (US), 2019.

Delayed Ejaculation Disorder

 

 Delayed Ejaculation Disorder:

Delayed ejaculation disorder is a condition in which a man experiences persistent difficulty in ejaculating during intercourse. This condition is relatively rare, occurring in only about 3 to 10 percent of men. Men who are completely unable to ejaculate are even rarer. About 85 percent of men who have difficulty ejaculating during intercourse can nevertheless achieve orgasm by other means of stimulation, such as through solitary masturbation.

In some cases, delayed ejaculation can be related to specific physical problems such as multiple sclerosis or to the use of certain medications. For example, antidepressants that block serotonin reuptake can be an effective treatment for early ejaculation. However, in other men, these same medications—especially SSRIs—can sometimes delay or prevent orgasm to an unpleasant extent. These side effects are common but can sometimes be treated pharmacologically with medications like Viagra.

Psychological treatments for delayed ejaculation include couples therapy in which a man tries to get used to having orgasms through intercourse with a partner rather than via masturbation. Treatment may also emphasize the reduction of performance anxiety about the importance of having an orgasm versus sexual pleasure and intimacy. Increasing genital stimulation may also be helpful.

In conclusion, delayed ejaculation disorder is a relatively rare condition that can have significant consequences for a man's sexual satisfaction and relationship. There are several treatment options available, including pharmacological interventions and psychological therapy. If you or someone you know is experiencing this problem, it may be helpful to seek help from a qualified healthcare professional.

References

 Hooley, Jill, M. et al. Abnormal Psychology. Available from: VitalSource Bookshelf, (18th Edition).

             Pearson Education (US), 2019.

 Who is at Risk for Suicide?

 Suicide is a serious public health issue that affects people of all ages, genders, and backgrounds. However, there are some groups of people who are at higher risk for suicide than others.

Gender

Men are four times more likely than women to die by suicide. This is likely due to a combination of factors, including the fact that men are more likely to use lethal means in their suicide attempts and that they are less likely to seek help for mental health problems.

Age

Suicide is very rare in children, but the risk increases dramatically during adolescence and young adulthood. The highest rates of suicide are seen in people aged 15-24. The risk of suicide then declines somewhat in midlife, before increasing again in older adulthood.

Race and ethnicity

White people are more likely to die by suicide than people of other races and ethnicities. This is particularly true for white men

Mental health conditions

Mental health conditions are a major risk factor for suicide. People with depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and other mental health conditions are more likely to attempt or die by suicide.

Substance abuse

People who abuse alcohol or drugs are also at increased risk for suicide. This is because substance abuse can lead to problems in other areas of life, such as relationships, finances, and employment. These problems can make it more difficult to cope with stress and can increase the risk of suicide.

History of suicide attempts

People who have attempted suicide in the past are more likely to attempt or die by suicide in the future. This is why it is so important to get help for suicidal thoughts and behaviors as soon as possible.

Exposure to trauma

People who have experienced trauma, such as abuse, neglect, or violence, are also at increased risk for suicide. This is because trauma can lead to problems with mental health, substance abuse, and interpersonal relationships. These problems can make it more difficult to cope with stress and can increase the risk of suicide.

Lack of social support

People who feel isolated and alone are more likely to attempt or die by suicide. This is because social support can help people to cope with stress and to feel connected to others. If you are feeling isolated or alone, it is important to reach out to friends, family, or a mental health professional for support.

If you are concerned that you or someone you know may be at risk for suicide, please reach out for help. There are many resources available, including:

The National Suicide Prevention Lifeline: 1-800-273-TALK (8255)

The Crisis Text Line: Text HOME to 741741

The Trevor Project: 1-866-488-7386

The Jed Foundation: https://www.jedfoundation.org/

The American Foundation for Suicide Prevention: https://afsp.org/

References

 Hooley, Jill, M.,et al. Abnormal Psychology. Available from: VitalSource Bookshelf, (18th   Edition). Pearson Education (US), 2019.

 Grief and Loss: The Normal and the Not-So-Normal

Grief is a natural and necessary process that we all go through when we lose someone we love. It is a complex emotion that can be expressed in many different ways, both physically and emotionally.

The grieving process typically follows a predictable pattern, with four distinct phases:

1. Numbing and disbelief: In the immediate aftermath of a loss, it is common to feel numb and disbelief. This is a way of coping with the overwhelming pain of loss.
2. Yearning and searching: As the numbness begins to wear off, we may start to feel an intense longing for the person we have lost. We may also experience vivid memories of them and find ourselves searching for them in familiar places.
3. Disorganization and despair: This phase is often characterized by feelings of sadness, anger, guilt, and despair. We may feel like our world has been turned upside down and we may have difficulty functioning in our daily lives.
4. Reorganization: This is the final phase of grief when we begin to rebuild our lives and find new meaning in our existence. We may still experience sadness and longing, but we will also be able to appreciate the good times we had with the person we lost and move forward with our lives.

It is important to remember that there is no right or wrong way to grieve. Everyone experiences grief differently and at their own pace. There is no set timeline for how long grief should last. Some people may start to feel better within a few months, while others may take years to fully heal.

If you are grieving the loss of a loved one, it is important to reach out for support. Talk to your friends and family, join a grief support group, or seek professional help from a therapist. There is no shame in seeking help during this difficult time.

It is also important to be patient with yourself. Grief is a process and it takes time to heal. Don't expect to feel better overnight. Just focus on taking things one day at a time and allow yourself to grieve in your own way.

Resilience in the Face of Loss

Not everyone who experiences loss develops depression. In fact, about 50 percent of people who lose a spouse, life partner, or parent exhibit genuine resilience in the face of loss, with minimal, very short-lived symptoms of depression or bereavement.

These resilient individuals are not emotionally maladjusted or unattached to their spouses. In fact, they are often very close to their loved ones and feel the loss deeply. However, they are able to cope with the loss in a healthy way. They may find comfort in their faith, their relationships with other people, or their hobbies. They may also find strength in their own inner resources.

If you are struggling to cope with the loss of a loved one, it is important to know that you are not alone. There are many people who have successfully navigated the grieving process and come out stronger on the other side. With time, support, and self-care, you can too.

References

 Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.). Pearson

                 Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033