Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia): What You Need to Know

 

Persistent depressive disorder (PDD), formerly called dysthymic disorder or dysthymia, is a mental health condition characterized by a persistent low mood that lasts for at least two years. People with PDD may also experience other symptoms, such as low energy, poor concentration, and feelings of hopelessness.

PDD is a chronic condition, but it is treatable. With the right treatment, people with PDD can learn to manage their symptoms and live full and productive lives.

What are the symptoms of PDD?

The main symptom of PDD is a persistent low mood. This mood may be described as feeling sad, down, or hopeless. People with PDD may also experience:

1. Low energy
2. Poor concentration
3. Difficulty making decisions
4. Low self-esteem
5. Feelings of hopelessness
6. Loss of interest in activities that were once enjoyable
7. Sleep disturbances (either insomnia or hypersomnia)
8. Changes in appetite (either weight loss or weight gain)
9. Fatigue
10. Aches and pains
11. Thoughts of death or suicide

How is PDD diagnosed?

PDD is diagnosed by a mental health professional. The diagnosis is based on a review of the person's symptoms and medical history. The professional will also rule out other possible causes of the symptoms, such as a medical condition or substance abuse.
What are the treatments for PDD? PDD is a treatable condition. There are a variety of treatment options available, including:

1. 
   Medication: There are a number of medications that can be effective in treating PDD. These medications typically take several weeks to start working, and they may need to be adjusted over time.
2. Therapy: Therapy can be helpful for people with PDD. There are a number of different types of therapy that can be effective, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and interpersonal therapy (IPT).
3. Lifestyle changes: Making changes to your lifestyle can also help to manage the symptoms of PDD. These changes may include getting regular exercise, eating a healthy diet, and getting enough sleep.

What is the outlook for people with PDD?

The outlook for people with PDD is good. With the right treatment, people with PDD can learn to manage their symptoms and live full and productive lives. However, PDD is a chronic condition, and there is always a risk of relapse.
If you think you may have PDD, it is important to see a mental health professional for diagnosis and treatment. With the right help, you can live a happy and fulfilling life.

References

 Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.). Pearson  Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033

 The Unconscious Mind: What is it and Why is it Important? - Freud

The unconscious mind is a vast and mysterious realm of our psyche that is largely hidden from our conscious awareness. However, it plays a vital role in our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

In this blog post, we will explore the concept of the unconscious mind, discuss some of its key features, and consider its importance for our psychological health.

What is the unconscious mind?

The unconscious mind is a reservoir of thoughts, feelings, memories, and desires that are outside of our conscious awareness. It is often described as a "dark continent" of the psyche because it is so difficult to access and understand. However, the unconscious mind is not completely inaccessible. We can gain some insights into its workings through dreams, slips of the tongue, and other forms of unconscious communication. 

The unconscious mind is characterized by the following features:

1. It is largely hidden from our conscious awareness.
2. It is dynamic and constantly active.
3. It is influenced by our emotions and drives.
4. It can store memories that we have repressed or forgotten.
5. It can generate creative ideas and solutions to problems.
6. The importance of the unconscious mind

The unconscious mind plays a vital role in our psychological health. It helps us to process emotions, store memories, and make decisions. It also plays a role in our creativity and problem-solving abilities.

However, the unconscious mind can also be a source of problems. For example, unconscious conflicts can lead to anxiety and depression. Unconscious memories of trauma can cause us to relive negative experiences. And unconscious desires can lead us to make self-destructive choices.

Conclusion

The unconscious mind is a complex and fascinating realm of our psyche. It is important to understand its workings in order to achieve psychological health and well-being.

If you are struggling with unconscious conflicts or other psychological problems, it is important to seek professional help. A therapist can help you to explore your unconscious mind and develop healthy coping mechanisms.

I hope this blog post has been informative and helpful. If you have any questions, please feel free to leave a comment below.

References

 Freud, S. (1911). The Interpretation of Dreams (3rd ed.). Hayes Barton Press.         https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/L-999-74204

 

Sigmund Freud and his theories:

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) is probably the most controversial and misunderstood psychological theorist. When reading Freud’s theories, it is important to remember that he was a medical doctor, not a psychologist. There was no such thing as a degree in psychology at the time that he received his education, which can help us understand some of the controversy over his theories today. However, Freud was the first to systematically study and theorize the workings of the unconscious mind in the manner that we associate with modern psychology.

In the early years of his career, Freud worked with Josef Breuer, a Viennese physician. During this time, Freud became intrigued by the story of one of Breuer’s patients, Bertha Pappenheim, who was referred to by the pseudonym Anna O. (Lovett et al., 2020).

Anna O. had been caring for her dying father when she began to experience symptoms such as partial paralysis, headaches, blurred vision, amnesia, and hallucinations (Launer, 2005). In Freud’s day, these symptoms were commonly referred to as hysteria. Anna O. turned to Breuer for help. He spent 2 years (1880–1882) treating Anna O. and discovered that allowing her to talk about her experiences seemed to bring some relief to her symptoms. Anna O. called his treatment the “talking cure” (Lovett et al., 2020). Despite the fact that Freud never met Anna O., her story served as the basis for the 1895 book, Studies on Hysteria, which he co-authored with Breuer.

Based on Breuer’s description of Anna O.’s treatment, Freud concluded that hysteria was the result of sexual abuse in childhood and that these traumatic experiences had been hidden from consciousness. Breuer disagreed with Freud, which soon ended their work together. However, Freud continued to work to refine talk therapy and build his theory on personality.

To explain the concept of conscious versus unconscious experience, Freud compared the mind to an iceberg (Lovett et al., 2020). He said that only about one-tenth of our mind is conscious, and the rest of our mind is unconscious. Our unconscious refers to that mental activity of which we are unaware and unable to access (Lovett et al., 2020). According to Freud, unacceptable urges and desires are kept in our unconscious through a process called repression.

For example, we sometimes say things that we don’t intend to say by unintentionally substituting another word for the one we meant. You’ve probably heard of a Freudian slip, the term used to describe this. Freud suggested that slips of the tongue are actually sexual or aggressive urges accidentally slipping out of our unconscious. Speech errors such as this are quite common. Seeing them as a reflection of unconscious desires, linguists today have found that slips of the tongue tend to occur when we are tired, nervous, or not at our optimal level of cognitive functioning.

According to Freud, our personality develops from a conflict between two forces: our biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives versus our internal (socialized) control over these drives. Our personality is the result of our efforts to balance these two competing forces. Freud suggested that we can understand this by imagining three interacting systems within our minds. He called them the id, ego, and superego.

The unconscious id contains our most primitive drives or urges and is present from birth. It directs impulses for hunger, thirst, and sex. Freud believed that the id operates on what he called the “pleasure principle,” in which the id seeks immediate gratification.

Through social interactions with parents and others in a child’s environment, the ego and superego develop to help control the id. The superego develops as a child interacts with others learning social rules for right and wrong. The superego acts as our conscience; it is our moral compass that tells us how we should behave.

References

 Lovett, R.M.S.W.J.J.M. D. (2020). Psychology 2e (2nd ed.). OpenStax.

     https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781951693237

 What is Hypnosis?

Hypnosis is a state of heightened suggestibility in which people are more likely to accept and act on the suggestions of a hypnotist. It is often used in therapy to help people manage pain, reduce stress, and quit smoking. Hypnosis can also be used for entertainment purposes, such as in stage shows.

There are two main theories about how hypnosis works. The first theory is that hypnosis is a state of dissociation, in which people are split into two parts: the conscious mind and the unconscious mind. The conscious mind is aware of what is happening around them, but the unconscious mind is more suggestible. The second theory is that hypnosis is a social role. When people are hypnotized, they are simply acting the part of a hypnotized person. They are following the suggestions of the hypnotist because they believe that they are supposed to do so.

There is some evidence to support both of these theories. For example, studies have shown that people in a hypnotic state are more likely to experience dissociation. They may have an out-of-body experience, or they may feel like they are watching themselves from a distance. However, there is also evidence that hypnosis is a social role. For example, studies have shown that people who are more suggestible are more likely to be hypnotized. This suggests that people who are more likely to believe in hypnosis are also more likely to be hypnotized.

Ultimately, the debate about how hypnosis works is still ongoing. However, there is no doubt that hypnosis is a powerful tool that can be used to help people in a variety of ways.

Here are some of the benefits of hypnosis:

• Pain management: Hypnosis has been shown to be effective in reducing pain in a variety of settings, including hospitals, dentists' offices, and pain clinics.
• Stress reduction: Hypnosis can be used to help people relax and reduce stress. This can be helpful for people with anxiety disorders, as well as people who simply want to improve their overall well-being.
• Weight loss: Hypnosis can be used to help people lose weight and keep it off. This is because hypnosis can help people change their eating habits and make healthier choices.
• Smoking cessation: Hypnosis can be an effective way to help people quit smoking. This is because hypnosis can help people break the habit and reduce their cravings for cigarettes.
• Performance improvement: Hypnosis can be used to help people improve their performance in a variety of areas, such as sports, public speaking, and test-taking. This is because hypnosis can help people focus and concentrate, and it can also help them reduce anxiety and stress.

If you are interested in trying hypnosis, it is important to find a qualified hypnotist. You can ask your doctor for a referral, or you can search online for hypnotists in your area. It is also important to be aware that hypnosis is not a magic bullet. It takes time and effort to achieve the desired results. However, if you are willing to put in the work, hypnosis can be a valuable tool for improving your life.

 References

Lovett, R.M.S.W.J.J.M. D. (2020). Psychology 2e (2nd ed.). OpenStax.

            
 https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781951693237

 

 

 Why Do We Sleep?

Why Do We Sleep?

We spend about one-third of our lives sleeping. That's a lot of time! But why do we sleep? What is the purpose of sleep?

There are many theories about why we sleep. Some of the most popular theories include:

To restore energy. Sleep is thought to help the body recover from the physical and mental demands of the day. During sleep, the body repairs cells and tissues, and the brain consolidates memories and processes emotions.

To protect us from predators. In the wild, animals sleep in safe places to avoid being eaten by predators. Humans may also sleep to protect themselves from danger, even though we no longer face the same level of predation as our ancestors. To consolidate memories. Sleep helps the brain to consolidate memories, which means strengthening and storing them. This is why we often wake up feeling refreshed and clear-headed after a good night's sleep. To regulate emotions. Sleep helps to regulate emotions and reduce stress levels. This is why people who are sleep-deprived often feel irritable, anxious, and depressed.

To boost creativity and problem-solving skills. Sleep helps to improve creativity and problem-solving skills. This is why many people find that they have their best ideas when they are relaxed and well-rested. It is likely that sleep serves multiple purposes, and that the specific benefits of sleep may vary depending on the individual and the circumstances. However, it is clear that sleep is essential for our physical and mental health. When we don't get enough sleep, we can experience a range of negative
consequences, including:

Irritability

Depression

Anxiety

Memory problems

Decision-making difficulties

Increased risk of accidents

Increased risk of chronic diseases

So, why do we sleep? The answer is still not fully understood, but it is clear that sleep is essential for our health and well-being. We should all make an effort to get enough sleep each night. In addition to the theories mentioned above, there are a few other possible explanations for why we sleep. For example, sleep may help to strengthen the immune system, regulate hormones, and protect the brain from damage. More research is needed to fully understand the benefits and purposes of sleep.

If you are concerned about your sleep, or if you are having trouble sleeping, it is important to talk to your doctor. There may be an underlying medical condition that is affecting your sleep. Your doctor can help you to determine the best course of treatment for your individual needs.

References

Lovett, R.M.S.W.J.J.M. D. (2020). Psychology 2e (2nd ed.). OpenStax.  

                               https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781951693237

 Why Do We Forget Our Dreams?

Dreams are a fascinating part of the human experience, but they are also notoriously difficult to remember. In fact, most people forget their dreams within minutes of waking up.

There are a number of reasons why we forget our dreams. One reason is that dreams are often very fleeting and ephemeral. They are made up of images, thoughts, and emotions that are often disconnected from each other. This makes them difficult to hold onto in the waking state.

Another reason why we forget our dreams is that they are often not very meaningful to us. Dreams can be about anything, from our deepest fears and desires to the most mundane everyday events. If a dream does not have any emotional significance for us, it is more likely to be forgotten.

Finally, the way we wake up can also affect our ability to remember our dreams. If we wake up suddenly or abruptly, we may not have enough time to process our dream and remember it. Conversely, if we wake up slowly and gradually, we are more likely to be able to remember our dream.

So, what can we do to improve our dream recall? Here are a few tips:

• Pay attention to your dreams as soon as you wake up. The sooner you start thinking about your dream, the more likely you are to remember it.
• Keep a dream journal. Writing down your dreams as soon as you wake up can help you to remember them more easily.
• Try to wake up slowly and gradually. This will give your brain more time to process your dream and remember it.
• Avoid caffeine and alcohol before bed. These substances can interfere with dream recall.
• Create a relaxing bedtime routine. This will help you to fall asleep more easily and have more vivid dreams.

By following these tips, you can improve your dream recall and learn more about your subconscious mind.

In addition to the reasons mentioned above, there are a few other factors that can contribute to the forgetting of dreams. For example, people who are sleep deprived or who have certain medical conditions, such as narcolepsy, are more likely to forget their dreams. Additionally, the way we dream can change over time. For example, children tend to have more vivid dreams than adults, and older adults may forget their dreams more easily.

Despite the challenges of remembering dreams, they can be a valuable source of information about ourselves. Dreams can reveal our hidden thoughts, feelings, and desires. They can also help us to process difficult experiences and to solve problems. By paying attention to our dreams, we can learn more about ourselves and our place in the world.

Resources

Freud, S. (1911). The Interpretation of Dreams (3rd ed.). Hayes Barton             Press. https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/L-999-74204

 The Power of Dreams to Bring Back Childhood Memories

Dreams are often said to be a reflection of our waking lives, but they can also be a way for us to access memories from our childhood. This is the phenomenon of the childhood dream, in which the dreamer is able to recall memories that they have not thought about in years.

There are many reasons why dreams might bring back childhood memories. One reason is that our childhood experiences are often stored in our subconscious minds. Dreams can provide a way for us to access these memories and process them in a safe and controlled environment.

Another reason why dreams might bring back childhood memories is that our brains are constantly making new connections between different memories. This process of neural networking can lead to the reactivation of old memories, even if we have not thought about them in a long time.

Whatever the reason, childhood dreams can be a powerful way to connect with our past. They can help us to understand our current selves and our relationships with others. They can also provide us with insights into our hopes, fears, and dreams for the future.

If you have ever had a childhood dream, I encourage you to write it down and reflect on it. What memories did it bring up for you? What did it mean to you? By paying attention to our childhood dreams, we can learn more about ourselves and our subconscious minds.

I also want to mention the work of Hildebrandt, who noted that dreams can sometimes bring back "remote and even forgotten experiences from the earliest periods of one's life." This is a fascinating phenomenon that has been observed by many dream researchers.

One possible explanation for this phenomenon is that our brains are constantly storing memories, even if we are not aware of them. These memories can be reactivated during dreams, providing us with a glimpse into our past.

Another possible explanation is that dreams allow us to access memories that have been repressed or forgotten. This can be a helpful process, as it can allow us to deal with past traumas or challenges in a safe and controlled environment.

Whatever the explanation, it is clear that dreams can be a powerful tool for accessing childhood memories. If you are interested in learning more about your own childhood, I encourage you to pay attention to your dreams. You may be surprised at what you remember.

References

    Freud, S. (1911). The Interpretation of Dreams (3rd ed.). Hayes Barton Press.https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/L-999-74204

 B. The Material of Dreams — Memory in Dreams

The Hypermnesic Dream: When Dreams Reveal Knowledge That Is Not Available in the Waking State

Dreams are often said to be a reflection of our waking lives, but what happens when a dream reveals knowledge that we do not have access to in our waking state? This is the phenomenon of the hypermnesic dream, in which the dreamer is able to access memories that are otherwise inaccessible.

There are many examples of hypermnesic dreams. One famous example is the dream of the French philosopher, Alfred Maury, who dreamed that he was talking to a woman who told him that she was from Mussidan, a city in France. Maury had never heard of Mussidan before, but when he woke up, he looked it up in the encyclopedia and found that it was a real place.

Another example of a hypermnesic dream is the dream of the Marquis d'Hervey de St. Denis, who dreamed of a young woman with golden hair. In the dream, he felt like he knew her, but he couldn't remember where he had met her. When he woke up, he still couldn't remember her, but then he had the same dream again the next night. This time, the woman told him her name and where he had met her.

These are just a few examples of hypermnesic dreams. They suggest that our dreams may have access to memories that are not available to us in our waking state. This is a fascinating phenomenon that has yet to be fully explained.

There are a few theories about why hypermnesic dreams occur. One theory is that they are a way for our brains to process memories that we have suppressed or forgotten. Another theory is that they are a way for our brains to make new connections between different memories. Still, another theory is that they are a way for our brains to prepare us for future events.

Whatever the reason, hypermnesic dreams are a reminder that our dreams are not just random nonsense. They may actually be a way for our brains to communicate with us on a deeper level.

If you have ever had a hypermnesic dream, I encourage you to write it down and reflect on it. What memories did it bring up for you? What did it mean to you? By paying attention to our dreams, we can learn more about ourselves and our subconscious minds.

References

Freud, S. (1911). The Interpretation of Dreams (3rd ed.). Hayes Barton Press.                                          

             https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/L-999-74204

 The Relation of the Dream to the Waking State

Photo courtesy of (Freud, 11911)

    Dreams have long been a source of fascination and mystery. What do they mean? Why do we have them? And what is the relationship between dreams and waking life? There is no single answer to these questions, as dreams can be interpreted in many different ways. However, some evidence suggests that dreams may be more connected to waking life than we previously thought. One study by the University of California, Berkeley, found that people who were shown images of faces before they went to sleep were more likely to dream about those faces. This suggests that dreams may be influenced by our thoughts and experiences in the waking world. 

    Another study, conducted by the University of Montreal, found that people who were stressed or anxious were more likely to have nightmares. This suggests that dreams may be a way for us to process and deal with difficult emotions from waking life. Of course, not all dreams are negative. Many people report having dreams that are pleasant or even meaningful. These dreams may offer us insights into our lives or help us to resolve problems. Ultimately, the relationship between dreams and waking life is complex and still not fully understood. However, the evidence suggests that dreams are more connected to our waking lives than we previously thought. They may be a way to process our thoughts and emotions, work through difficult experiences, and even gain insights into our lives. Here are some additional thoughts on the relationship between dreams and waking life:

1. Dreams can be a way for us to revisit and process experiences from waking life.
2. Dreams can help us to work through difficult emotions, such as anger, sadness, or fear.
3. Dreams can offer us insights into our lives and help us to make better decisions.
4. Dreams can be a source of creativity and inspiration.
5. Dreams can be simply a way for our minds to rest and recharge.

    No matter what your interpretation of dreams may be, they are a fascinating and important part of the human experience. They can offer us a glimpse into our subconscious minds and help us to better understand ourselves.

References

Freud, S. (1911). The Interpretation of Dreams (3rd ed.). Hayes Barton Press.               https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/L-999-74204

 Neurobiological Research: Understanding Loss of Control and Continued Use 

• neurobiology research also investigates the loss of control.
• defined as continued drug use despite significant adverse consequences.
• 2 frontal areas of the brain are key components of the inhibitory pathway of the brain
• 
  the pathway that allows us to control our impulses. Neuroimaging studies suggest that compulsive behavior requires dysfunction within the ACC - Anterior cingulate cortex and OFC - Orbitofrontal cortex.
• neuroimaging studies suggest that compulsive behavior as seen in both intractable addiction and OCD requires dysfunction within the two highly interconnected cortical systems  ACC and OFC
• results from neuroimaging studies examining the effects of mindfulness practices on the brain have suggested future directions for addiction treatment and brain healing.
• Corticocobasal ganglia network
• Dorsal striatum
• plays a role in executive functioning and decision making 
• experiences increased dopaminergic signaling in the presence of drug abuse
• the brain pathway that begins from the VTA to the dorsal striatum is referred to as the habit circuit
• because of its role in conditioned learning
• Anterior cingulate cortex
• orbitofrontal cortex
• Mindfulness-based relapse prevention
• targets a reduction of cravings and relapse
• shows promise as an effective modality to be used in conjunction with other types of addictions treatment
• 
  
  
  As compulsive using and drinking continue the brain sustains physical damage and becomes less capable of unlearning
• continued emphasis on brain circuitry alteration can assist counselors in improving their understanding and empathy when the addict can not " just learn to stop"
• Neuroimaging has revealed a number of additional findings related to the effects of drug and alcohol use on the brain
• cue reactivity
• the array of psychological, physiological, and behavioral effects elicited by drug-related stimuli.
• Imaging studies have identified the visual cortex as an important part of drug cue reactivity and demonstrated with remarkable consistency that substance-dependent individuals have significantly higher activity in the primary and secondary visual cortices when exposed to drug versus nondrug cue
• this finding is supportive of the hypothesis that attentional bias to drug cues may be a biomarker for addiction and has implications for the ability to predict relapse.
• Other neuroimaging studies have supported the relationship between drug cue reactivity and length and intensity of drug use, addiction severity, relapse risk, use-associated problems, and treatment outcomes and highlighted the role that individual factors play in neural reactivity to drug cues.
• Neuroimaging studies have demonstrated the effect of drugs on the brain's functioning long after substances have been eliminate from the body
• about 20 million people with alcoholism in the USA have some degree of brain damage
• highlighted imaging studies that determined relapsers showed increased atrophy in the bilateral orbitofrontal cortex and in the right medial prefrontal cortex and ACC
• Brain areas associated with error monitoring
• 
  
  
  researchers have determined that some alcoholics seem to exhibit more damage to the right hemisphere of the brain than the left hemisphere and significant brain volume shrinkage.
• cocaine dependence appears to result in a marked reduction of gray matter  in the prefrontal cortex, especially the orbitofrontal cortex
• research also suggests that depending on age the brain of the detoxified alcoholic appears as ravaged as that of a patient with Alzheimer's disease
• substantial changes have been noted in the hippocampus of youth who engage in binge drinking.
• the brain's ability to form new cells is disrupted by addiction
• new brain cells are created from the division of neural stem cells
• a process called neurogenesis
• alcohol can significantly disrupt neurogenesis
• Promising new approaches in the treatment of cocaine addiction may involve neurosurgical procedures such as deep brain stimulation.
• currently used with certain patients with Parkinson's disease
• the effect of deep brain stimulation in the subthalamic nucleus of rats has found evidence of a decrease in motivation for further cocaine
• extensive research with PET scans and other neuroimaging technology will add to the knowledge of the cause's effects and treatment of addiction
• these imaging tools are adding to the addiction specialist's treatment toolbox and may make it possible to develop biomarkers to predict disease trajectories and therapeutic outcomes that are necessary for individualized medicine and optimal patient care.
  

                                                      

  Resources

Capuzzi, D., & Stauffer, M. D. (2019). Foundations of Addictions Counseling (4th ed.). Pearson Education                  (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135169858 

Neurotransmitters and Addiction

 

Neurotransmitters

Neurobiological Components of Addiction: Understanding the Reward Pathway

 Neurobiological Components of

Addiction: Understanding the Reward

Pathway

Reward pathway

The basic concept in the neurobiology of addiction is the reward pathway which comprises the areas of the brain most involved in addiction. 

The limbic system

Home of the areas of the brain thought to make up the reward pathway. When stimuli activate particular areas of the brain then pleasurable sensations are produced. Neurotransmitters play critical roles in transmitting information between neurons through synapses. A synapse measures twenty to fifty nanometers.

Dopamine

Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter involved in reward and euphoria experiences. Dopamine is made by very few brain cells and acts mainly within a subset of brain regions. Dopamine seems to have a disproportionately large impact on brain function.

Cocaine

Cocaine interferes with the normal action of dopamine by blocking the removal or reuptake of dopamine which results in an increase of dopamine in the neurons, resulting in overstimulation of receiving neurons called neuroreceptors. This is experienced by the user as a pleasurable euphoria. An addict seeks to continue experiencing this sensation which results from an abundance of powerful neurotransmitters including dopamine. In the brain, this dopaminergic transmission and reward pathway is a primary feature of addiction.

The areas of the brain involved in the reward pathway

VTA

The VTA has emerged as a new research interest in understanding how addiction and drugs affect the brain. The stress of VTA may be a potential factor in relapse. Advanced research will unlock more keys to understanding the VTA and GABA's role in inhibiting or slowing the dopaminergic surge.

References 

     Capuzzi, D., & Stauffer, M. D. (2019). Foundations of Addictions Counseling (4th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135169858 

 Neurobiology and the Physiology of

Addiction

                                    References

Capuzzi, D., & Stauffer, M. D. (2019). Foundations of Addictions Counseling (4th ed.).Pearson                         Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135169858 

 Combating Negative Self-Talk

Negative self-talk is the inner voice that criticizes, doubts or belittles yourself. It can affect your mood, confidence, and performance at work. Negative self-talk can also lead to stress, anxiety, depression, and burnout. But how can you combat negative self-talk and replace it with positive affirmations? Here are some tips to help you:

• 
  Identify the triggers. What situations or events make you feel insecure, frustrated, or inadequate? Is it a difficult project, a demanding client, a challenging colleague, or a personal issue? Try to notice when and why you start to talk negatively to yourself. 
•  Challenge the thoughts. Don't accept your negative thoughts as facts. Ask yourself if they are realistic, helpful, or fair. For example, if you think "I'm not good enough for this job", ask yourself "What evidence do I have for this? How would I respond if a friend said this to me? What can I do to improve my skills or confidence?"
  
• Replace the thoughts. Once you have challenged your negative thoughts, replace them with positive ones. Use affirmations that are specific, realistic, and empowering. For example, instead of saying "I can't do this", say "I can do this if I work hard and ask for help when I need it".
• Practice gratitude. One way to combat negative self-talk is to focus on the positive aspects of your life and work. Make a habit of writing down or saying out loud three things you are grateful for every day. This can help you appreciate what you have and what you have achieved. 
•  Seek support. You don't have to deal with negative self-talk alone. Talk to someone you trust, such as a friend, family member, mentor, or therapist. They can help you gain perspective, offer encouragement, and provide feedback. You can also join a support group or online community where you can share your experiences and learn from others

 The Top Seven Self-Defeating Behaviors

Some habits and patterns can prevent us from achieving our goals and happiness. Here are the top seven self-defeating behaviors and how to overcome them.

1.  Procrastination: Putting off important tasks until the last minute or avoiding them. Solution: Break down the task into smaller steps, set realistic deadlines, and reward yourself for each step.
2. Perfectionism: Setting unrealistically ambitious standards for yourself and others and being overly critical. Solution: Recognize that perfection is impossible and unnecessary and that mistakes are part of learning. Focus on your strengths and achievements and appreciate the effort and progress of yourself and others.
3.  Negative self-talk: Talking to yourself in a harsh, pessimistic, or self-defeating way. Solution: Become aware of your thoughts and challenge them with more positive and realistic ones. Practice gratitude, affirmations, and self-compassion, and surround yourself with supportive and encouraging people.
4. Comparison: Measuring your own worth and success by comparing yourself to others. Solution: Realize that everyone has their own strengths and weaknesses, goals, and challenges, and that you are not in competition with anyone but yourself. Celebrate your own uniqueness and achievements and appreciate the diversity and value of others.
5. 
   Fear of failure: Fearing not meeting your own or others' expectations or facing negative consequences or judgments. Solution: Redefine failure as an opportunity to learn and grow, rather than a sign of weakness or incompetence. Embrace uncertainty and change as inevitable parts of life, and view challenges as chances to test your abilities and expand your horizons.
6. Fear of success: Fearing achieving your goals, reaching your potential, or facing the increased responsibility or scrutiny that may come with it. Solution: Acknowledge your own worthiness and capability and believe that you deserve happiness and fulfillment. Prepare yourself for the possible changes and challenges that may accompany your success and seek support from others who can help you cope with them.
7. Lack of assertiveness: Not expressing your own needs, opinions, or feelings in an honest, respectful, and confident way. Solution: Recognize your own rights and responsibilities as an equal person in any relationship or situation and communicate them clearly and calmly. Listen actively and empathetically to others, and respect their rights and responsibilities as well.

Social Anxiety Disorder

 

The Evolution of Abnormal Behavior

         

Humans have been documenting abnormal behavior for thousands of years. The Egyptians recorded treatments and diseases of humans back in the sixteenth century. The Egyptians were the first to connect the brain with mental functions. The Egyptians also relied on magic to treat these unfamiliar conditions. The Chinese, Egyptians, Hebrews, and Greeks blamed abnormal behavior on demonic possession and the wrath of God. One extreme treatment used in the beginning was drilling holes in the afflicted person's head to
release evil spirits from their head. China was one of the earliest civilizations to relate mental disorders and medicine. The Chinese introduced the concept of the yin and yang, which was about the balance of positive and negative forces in the human body. Balancing these forces in the human body led to physical and mental health. 

During the Middle Ages, the scientific approach of the Greeks carried over into the Islamic countries, and the first mental hospital was set up in Baghdad in A.D 792 (Hooley et al., 2019). In these hospitals, patients suffering from mental illness received more humane and ethical treatment. Avicenna from Persia wrote The Canon of Medicine, which referred to the following conditions: hysteria, epilepsy, manic reactions, and melancholia. 

Finally, around 400 B.C.E., the Greeks realized that abnormal behavior was pathological and not the result of supernatural forces. Hippocrates emphasized” the importance of heredity and predisposition and pointed out that injuries to the head could cause sensory and motor disorders” (Hooley et al., 2019). Hippocrates “was a harbinger of a basic concept of modern psychodynamic psychotherapy” (Hooley et al., 2019). Plato, Aristotle, and Galen’s teachings looked at these abnormal behaviors with a scientific approach. Plato even suggested that people suffering from mental health disorders were not accountable for their actions like ordinary people. Aristotle and Galen also first started investigating depression in the Greek and Roman era. In the Middle Ages, religious persecution hindered the scientific approach to studying mental disorders; however, Hildegard, a nun who was noted as the first female of medicine to publish studies, still believed in the pre-modern view of depression.  Philippe Pinel was a French physician who believed in the more humane treatment of mental health patients during the humanitarian reform. William Tuke, an English Quaker, introduced theories of treatment that involved treating mental illness patients with kindness and acceptance.  During the humanitarian reform because of Pine and Tuke, asylums ended inhumane practices such as chaining mental health patients and therapies such as near drowning mental illness patients.” The success of Pinel’s and Tuke’s humanitarian experiments revolutionized the treatment of patients with mental illness throughout the Western world” (Hooley et al., 2019). 

    Back in America, Benjamin Rush, the founder of American Psychiatry, carried on the humanitarian reform. He also wrote the” first systematic treatise on psychiatry in America, Medical Inquiries, and Observations upon Diseases of the Mind in 1812 (Hooley et al., 2019). Rush was also the first to introduce a course in psychology. Dorothea Dix encouraged legislatures and people to raise standards in mental hospitals in the U.S. between 1841 and 1881. The humanitarian movement continued to positively influence the treatment of people with mental illness into the 1800s and 1900s. Psychiatrists and physicians started running mental health facilities and raising the standards of caring for mentally ill patients, as well as incorporating a more scientific approach. During this time and into the twentieth- century, the stigma of mental illness changed for the better. Clifford Beers published A Mind That Found Itself in 1908 and led a campaign that shifted peoples’ views away from inhumane therapies used to treat mental illness. Mental facilities grew for the first part of the twentieth century, as did the length of their hospitalization. In 1946, Mary Jane Ward’s The Snake Pit inspired increased humane treatments for mental health patients. That same year, the National Institutes of Mental Health was born, which eventually affected research and training in mental health.  The Hill-Burton and Community Mental Health Act of 1963 helped develop outpatient treatment centers. Finally, during the later part of the twentieth century, most of these mental institutions closed, and most of these patients returned to society because of better therapies and outpatient centers. 

While there is no universal indicator for diagnosing abnormal behavior, three main areas can indicate an abnormality. The first area is subjective distress, such as anxiety and depression, or some people may describe psychological pain. Another area is maladaptiveness, which is behavior that inhibits our well-being and relationships. Another area is” Statistical deviancy “(Hooley et al., 2019). In other words, the behavior is rare and not seen in everyday situations. And while these indicators provide the first piece of the puzzle, contributing factors to abnormal behavior give another piece. 

Biological, psychological, social, and cultural perspectives contribute to abnormal behavior.” In examining biologically based vulnerabilities, we must consider genetic abnormalities, brain dysfunction and neural plasticity, neurotransmitter and hormonal abnormalities in the brain or other parts of the central nervous system, and temperament” (Hooley et al., 2019). A vulnerability in someone’s genetics can affect the development of mental illness as well as the outcome of their exposure to external stimuli. Psychodynamic, behavioral, and cognitive-behavioral factors contribute to abnormal behavior. Early life trauma, parenting problems, divorce, unemployment, discrimination, and dysfunctional relationships are contributing social factors that also contribute to abnormal behavior. The norms of a culture can also define abnormal behavior. Cultural perspectives can also contribute to abnormal behavior. Typical behavior in one culture may be offensive or not accepted in another culture. 

Social factors contributing to abnormal behavior are also related to the programmatic theme of social justice. People of low socio-economic classes have often experienced issues such as unemployment and discrimination. These events can lead to abnormal behavior. But is this abnormal behavior or an adaptive behavior necessary for their survival? So, diagnosing abnormal behavior and providing treatment is a puzzle. One cannot draw conclusions or diagnose one puzzle piece because all the puzzle pieces not only form the complete picture but also give each other contextual meaning. 

References 

Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal Psychology (18th ed.). Pearson Education     (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033