The Importance of Controlled Research Trials in Abnormal Psychology

 The Importance of Controlled Research Trials in Abnormal Psychology

Researchers in abnormal psychology are often interested in learning which treatments work for specific disorders. One way to do this is to conduct controlled research trials. In a controlled research trial, participants are randomly assigned to two or more groups. One group receives the treatment being studied, while the other group(s) receive a placebo or no treatment. The placebo is a fake treatment that looks and feels like the real treatment, but it does not contain any active ingredients. This type of study design helps to ensure that any differences between the groups are due to the treatment and not to other factors, such as the participants' expectations or the natural course of the disorder.

There are two main types of controlled research trials:

1. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are the gold standard for testing the effectiveness of treatments. In an RCT, participants are randomly assigned to the treatment group or the control group. This helps to ensure that the groups are as similar as possible, except for the treatment they receive.
2. Case-control studies compare people who have a disorder (the cases) to people who do not have the disorder (the controls). The researchers then look for differences between the two groups, such as differences in their exposure to a particular treatment.

Key features of an experimental design.

 

Key features of an experimental design.

• Correlational research can only show that there is an association between two variables, but it cannot tell us whether one variable causes the other.
• Experimental research is used to draw conclusions about causality. In an experiment, the researcher manipulates one variable (the independent variable) and then measures the effect of that manipulation on another variable (the dependent variable).
• To control for other factors that could affect the dependent variable, participants are randomly assigned to different groups.
• One group typically receives the treatment (the experimental condition), while the other group does not (the control condition).
• After the experiment is completed, the data from the two groups are compared to see if there is a difference between them.

In other words, experimental research is a more rigorous way to study cause and effect than correlational research. It is important to note, however, that even experiments cannot always prove causation with 100% certainty. There is always the possibility of other factors that could be causing the observed effect.

Here are some additional points about experimental research:

• The independent variable is the variable that the researcher manipulates. It is also called the treatment variable.
• The dependent variable is the variable that the researcher measures. It is also called the outcome variable.
• The control group is the group of participants that do not receive the treatment. This group is used to compare to the experimental group to see if there is a difference between the

Random assignment is used to ensure that the two groups are as similar as possible. This helps to reduce the likelihood that any differences between the groups are due to factors other than the treatment. Experimental research can be used to study a wide variety of phenomena, including the effects of medications, educational interventions, and environmental factors.

References

 Hooley, J. M., Nock, M. K., & Butcher, J. N. (2019).     AbnormalPsychology(18thed.).Pearson              Education(US).https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135191033

 Hallucinogens and Psychedelics

Hallucinogens are a class of drugs that can alter a person's perception of reality. They can cause people to see, hear, smell, taste, or feel things that are not there. Hallucinogens can also cause changes in mood, thought, and behavior.

Some common hallucinogens include:

• LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
• Psilocybin (found in mushrooms)
• Mescaline (found in the peyote cactus)
• PCP (phencyclidine)
• DMT (N, N-Dimethyltryptamine)
  

Hallucinogens can be taken in a variety of ways, including swallowing them, smoking them, or injecting them. The effects of hallucinogens can vary depending on the drug, the dose, and the person taking it.

The effects of hallucinogens can be mild or severe. Mild effects may include:

• 
  Changes in perception, such as seeing things that are not there
• Changes in mood, such as feeling happy, sad, or scared
• Changes in thought, such as having strange ideas or thoughts
• Changes in behavior, such as becoming withdrawn or talkative

Severe effects of hallucinogens may include:

• Panic attacks
• Hallucinations that are disturbing or frightening
• Psychosis
• Persisting perception disorder (HPPD)
•  which is a condition in which people continue to experience hallucinations after they have stopped taking the drug

Hallucinogens can be dangerous, and they can have serious side effects. People who take hallucinogens are at risk of accidents, injuries, and violence. They may also experience long-term psychological problems, such as anxiety, depression, and psychosis.

If you or someone you know has used hallucinogens and is experiencing problems, there is help available. Please reach out to a mental health professional or call the National Drug Helpline at 1-800-662-HELP (4357).

References

Capuzzi, D., & Stauffer, M. D. (2019). Foundations of Addictions Counseling (4th ed.).PearsonEducation(US).https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135169858 

The Opioid Epidemic

       The Opioid Epidemic

The opioid epidemic is a serious public health crisis in the United States. Opioids are a class of drugs that include prescription painkillers, heroin, and synthetic opioids like fentanyl. They work by binding to opioid receptors in the brain, which can lead to a feeling of euphoria and pain relief. Opioid addiction is a chronic disease that can be difficult to treat. People who are addicted to opioids may experience withdrawal symptoms if they stop using the drug, and they may also develop a tolerance to the drug, meaning that they need to take more and more of it to achieve the same effect. The opioid epidemic has been caused by a number of factors, including the overprescription of opioid painkillers, the availability of heroin, and the use of synthetic opioids like fentanyl. The overprescription of opioid painkillers began in the early 1990s when pharmaceutical companies marketed these drugs as safe and effective for the treatment of chronic pain. As a result, the number of opioid prescriptions in the United States increased dramatically.

Heroin is a cheaper and more potent alternative to prescription painkillers. It is also more easily available, as it can be produced illegally. Synthetic opioids like fentanyl are even more potent than heroin. They are often added to heroin or other drugs without the user's knowledge, which can lead to overdose and death. The opioid epidemic has had a devastating impact on the United States. In 2017, there were over 70,000 drug overdose deaths in the United States, and the majority of these deaths involved opioids.

There are a number of things that can be done to address the opioid epidemic. 

• Reducing the overprescription of opioid painkillers
• Increasing access to treatment for opioid addiction
• Educating the public about the dangers of opioids
• Cracking down on the illegal sale of opioids

The opioid epidemic is a complex problem, but it is one that can be solved. By working together, we can save lives and prevent future tragedies.

If you or someone you know is struggling with opioid addiction, there is help available. Please reach out to a treatment provider or call the National Drug Helpline at 1-800-662-HELP (4357).

Resources

Capuzzi, D., & Stauffer, M. D. (2019). Foundations of Addictions Counseling (4th ed.).Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135169858

 

 The Effects of Alcohol

Alcohol is a depressant that affects the central nervous system. It is the most widely used drug in the world, with over 70% of people in the United States over the age of 18 reporting alcohol consumption within the previous 12 months (Capuzzi, D., & Stauffer, 2019).

Alcohol is absorbed into the bloodstream through the stomach and small intestine. Its effects are usually felt within 20 minutes. The amount of alcohol that is absorbed depends on a number of factors, including the amount of alcohol consumed, the food in the stomach, and the person's body weight. Alcohol affects the brain by slowing down the activity of neurons. This can lead to a number of changes in mood, behavior, and physical functioning.

 Some of the short-term effects of alcohol include: 

• 
  Relaxation
• Euphoria
• Reduced inhibitions
• Increased sociability
• Slurred speech
• Poor coordination
• Reduced reaction time
• Drowsiness
• Blackouts

Alcohol can also have long-term effects on the brain. Heavy drinking over time can damage brain cells and lead to a number of conditions, including:

• 
  Alcohol dependence
• Alcohol withdrawal syndrome
• Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
• Dementia
• Stroke
  
• Liver disease
• Heart disease
• Cancer

Alcohol can also be addictive. People who are addicted to alcohol may experience withdrawal symptoms if they stop drinking. These symptoms can include anxiety, tremors, nausea, and vomiting.

If you are concerned about your drinking, it is important to talk to a doctor or a therapist. They can help you assess your drinking and develop a plan to reduce or stop drinking.

 Here are some tips for reducing your drinking:

• Set limits on how much you drink.
• Drink slowly and evenly.
• Eat before you drink.
• Avoid drinking on an empty stomach.
• Drink non-alcoholic beverages in between alcoholic drinks.
• Take breaks from drinking.
• Have a plan for how you will get home safely if you are drinking.

References 

 Capuzzi, D., & Stauffer, M. D. (2019). Foundations of Addictions Counseling (4th ed.).  Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135169858

 Psychological Models of Addiction

Addiction is a complex disorder that can have many causes. While there is no single theory that can fully explain addiction, psychological models can provide some insights into the underlying factors that contribute to this condition.

Cognitive-behavioral model

The cognitive-behavioral model of addiction focuses on the role of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in the development and maintenance of addiction. This model suggests that people who are addicted to substances or behaviors may have negative thoughts and beliefs about themselves, others, and the world. These negative thoughts can lead to feelings of anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem. In turn, these negative feelings can trigger addictive behaviors as a way to cope with these emotions.

The cognitive-behavioral model also emphasizes the role of learning in addiction. This model suggests that people learn to associate certain cues or triggers with the rewarding effects of addictive substances or behaviors. Over time, these cues can become powerful triggers that lead to cravings and relapse.

Learning model

The learning model of addiction is based on the principles of classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with a rewarding stimulus, such as the feeling of euphoria that comes from using a drug. Over time, the neutral stimulus (e.g., the sight of a drug) can become a conditioned stimulus that triggers cravings and urges to use the drug.

Operant conditioning occurs when a behavior is followed by a consequence. In the case of addiction, the behavior of using a substance or engaging in behavior is followed by a pleasurable consequence (e.g., the feeling of euphoria). This positive reinforcement increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the future.

Psychodynamic model

The psychodynamic model of addiction views addiction as a way of coping with underlying psychological issues. This model suggests that people who are addicted to substances or behaviors may have unresolved conflicts or trauma from their past. They may use addictive substances or behaviors as a way to avoid dealing with these difficult emotions.

The psychodynamic model also emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind in addiction. This model suggests that people who are addicted may not be aware of the underlying reasons for their addiction. They may need therapy to help them understand and address these unconscious issues.

Personality theory model

The personality theory model of addiction views addiction as a way of expressing certain personality traits. This model suggests that people who are addicted may have personality traits such as impulsivity, low self-esteem, or a need for control. These personality traits can make it more likely that people will engage in addictive behaviors.

Conclusion

The psychological models of addiction described above are just a few of the many theories that have been proposed to explain this complex disorder. While no single theory can fully explain addiction, these models can provide some insights into the underlying factors that contribute to this condition.

If you or someone you know is struggling with addiction, there are many resources available to help. Please reach out for help if you need it.

Here are some additional resources for people struggling with addiction:

1. The National Institute on Drug Abuse: https://www.drugabuse.gov/
2. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration: https://www.samhsa.gov/
3. The National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence: https://www.ncadd.org/
4. The American Psychological Association: https://www.apa.org/topics/addiction/

 

References

 Capuzzi, D., & Stauffer, M. D. (2019). Foundations of Addictions Counseling (4th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135169858

Models for Explaining the Etiology of Addiction: The Moral Model

Models for Explaining the Etiology of Addiction: The Moral Model

 The moral model of addiction is a belief system that views addiction as a result of personal choice and moral weakness. Proponents of this model believe that addicts are responsible for their own addiction and should be punished for their behavior. This model is often based on religious beliefs and has been influential in the legal system.

The moral model is not supported by scientific evidence. There is no evidence that addicts are morally weak or that they choose to be addicted. Addiction is a complex disorder that is influenced by a variety of factors, including genetics, environment, and mental health.

The moral model can be harmful to addicts. It can lead to feelings of shame and guilt, which can make it more difficult for them to seek help. It can also lead to discrimination and criminalization, which can make it harder for them to get jobs, housing, and other essential services.

The moral model is outdated and should be replaced with a more scientifically accurate model of addiction. This model should focus on understanding the causes of addiction and developing effective treatments. It should also focus on reducing stigma and discrimination against addicts.

Here are some additional points to consider:

The moral model is often used to justify punitive policies towards addicts, such as incarceration.

The moral model can be used to blame addicts for their own suffering, which can make it more difficult for them to recover.

The moral model can be used to deny addicts access to treatment and other resources.

It is important to remember that addiction is a complex disorder that is not the fault of the individual. Addicts need our compassion and support, not our judgment.

Resources

Capuzzi, D., & Stauffer, M. D. (2019). Foundations of Addictions Counseling (4th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780135169858