Introspection

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• The founders of experimental psychology used the methods of experimental introspection which involved asking subjects to focus on their personal reflections and then relate them to outside signals.
• Most of the subjects were male and asked to rate their experiences on a one to ten-point scale. Psychologists at the time believed that introspection could be used to study mental elements such as sensations and feelings.

🟩There were limitations of introspection

🟩Introspection was not appropriate for studying complex psychological processes.

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Mary Calkins' self-psychology

Calkins was a psychologist who understood the limitations of introspection. Her new approach to psychology focused on the self which had three founding concepts (Shiraev, 2016) :

1. The self
2. The object
3. The self's relation or attitude toward that object.

Two levels of the self  (Shiraev, 2016):

1. contents of consciousness
2. environment in which the content unfolds.

• Calkins's self-psychology was influenced by the work of William James, another early psychologist who was critical of introspection.
• Introspection in psychology declined by the early 20th century
• Calkins's self-psychology was also influenced by the work of the philosopher Josiah Royce, who argued that the self is not a fixed entity, but rather a process of becoming.
• James proposed a theory of the self that emphasized its dynamic and ever-changing nature.

References

 Shiraev, E. (2016). Personality Theories: A Global View. SAGE Publications, Inc. (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781506300795

Suicide Prevention

 

Suicide: A Cry for Help

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Suicide is the tenth leading cause of death in the United States, and it is the second leading cause of death among young people ages 15-24. It is a serious public health issue that affects people of all ages, races, and ethnicities.

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There are many reasons why someone might consider suicide. Some people may feel hopeless or like they have no way out of their problems. Others may be struggling with mental health conditions such as depression or anxiety. Still others may have experienced trauma or abuse.

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• Whatever the reason, suicide is never the answer. It is a permanent solution to a temporary problem. There are people who care about you and want to help. If you are thinking about suicide, please reach out for help. There are many resources available, including:
• The National Suicide Prevention Lifeline: 1-800-273-TALK (8255)
• The Crisis Text Line: Text HOME to 741741
• The Trevor Project: 1-866-488-7386
• You are not alone. There is help available. Please reach out for help if you are thinking about suicide.

• In addition to the resources listed above, there are many other ways to get help for suicide. You can talk to a trusted friend or family member, see a therapist or counselor, or join a support group. There are also many online resources available.

• If you are concerned about someone who may be suicidal, please talk to them about your concerns. Let them know that you care about them and that you are there for them. You can also encourage them to get help from a professional.

• Suicide is a serious issue, but it is one that can be prevented. If you or someone you know is thinking about suicide, please reach out for help. There is hope.

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Here are some additional tips for preventing suicide:

• Talk to your doctor or a mental health professional if you are feeling suicidal.
• Get involved in your community and build strong relationships with friends and family.
• Take care of your physical health by eating healthy, exercising, and getting enough sleep.
• Learn healthy coping mechanisms for dealing with stress and difficult emotions.
• 
  If you are feeling overwhelmed, reach out for help from a crisis hotline or mental health professional.

It is important to remember that suicide is never the answer. There is help available, and you are not alone. If you or someone you know is thinking about suicide, please reach out for help.

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Social Media Addiction??

 

 Psychology of Social Media Addiction

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Social media has become an integral part of our lives. We use it to stay connected with friends and family, to share our thoughts and experiences, and to get the latest news and information. But for some people, social media can become addictive.
Social media addiction is a behavioral addiction that is characterized by an uncontrollable urge to use social media. People with social media addiction may spend hours each day on social media, even when they know it is interfering with their work, school, or personal relationships. They may also feel anxious or restless when they are not using social media.

• There are a number of factors that can contribute to social media addiction. One factor is the way that social media is designed. Social media platforms are designed to be addictive. They use features such as notifications, likes, and shares to keep users engaged. They also use algorithms to show users content that they are likely to find interesting, which can lead to users spending more time on social media.

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Another factor that can contribute to social media addiction is the way that social media can be used to connect with others. Social media can provide a sense of connection and belonging, which can be especially important for people who feel isolated or lonely. However, social media can also lead to comparison and envy, which can make people feel worse about themselves.

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  The effects of social media addiction can be significant. People with social media addiction may experience problems with their work, school, or relationships. They may also experience symptoms of anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem. If you think you or someone you know may have a social media addiction, there are a number of things you can do. The first step is to acknowledge that you have a problem. Once you have acknowledged the problem, you can start to make changes. These changes may include limiting your time on social media, deleting certain apps, or setting boundaries around your social media use.

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Try these steps and see how they make you feel

• Identify your triggers. What are the things that make you want to use social media? Once you know your triggers, you can start to avoid them.
• Set limits. Decide how much time you want to spend on social media each day. Stick to your limits as much as possible.
• Take breaks. Get up and move around every 20-30 minutes. This will help you to stay focused and avoid getting too absorbed in social media.
• Find other activities. Find other activities that you enjoy and that will help you to relax and de-stress. This could include reading, spending time with friends and family, or exercising.

 

Cognitive Dissonance: The Psychology of Inconsistency

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Have you ever made a decision that you later regretted? Or maybe you've done something that went against your values? If so, you've probably experienced cognitive dissonance.

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Cognitive dissonance is a state of discomfort that occurs when a person's beliefs or attitudes are inconsistent with their behavior. This discomfort motivates the person to reduce the dissonance by changing their beliefs, attitudes, or behavior (Shiraev, 2016).

For example, let's say you believe that smoking is bad for your health, but you still smoke. This creates cognitive dissonance because your behavior (smoking) is inconsistent with your belief (smoking is bad for your health).

There are a few different ways to reduce cognitive dissonance

• One way is to change your beliefs. In this case, you might start to believe that smoking is not as bad for your health as you thought.
•  Another way to reduce cognitive dissonance is to change your behavior. In this case, you might quit smoking. 
• Consonant cognitions - beliefs or attitudes that support your behavior. In this case, you might start to believe that smoking is a way to relieve stress or that it makes you look cool. 
• Finally, you can also reduce cognitive dissonance by avoiding dissonant cognitions. Dissonant cognitions are beliefs or attitudes that contradict your behavior. In this case, you might avoid thinking about the negative consequences of smoking.

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Cognitive dissonance is a powerful force that can motivate people to change their beliefs, attitudes, or behavior. It can also be used to influence people's behavior in marketing and other contexts.

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Why do people strive to avoid cognitive dissonance?

• There are a few reasons why people strive to avoid cognitive dissonance. One reason is that it is an unpleasant state of mind. When people experience cognitive dissonance, they feel uncomfortable and anxious. They may also feel guilty or ashamed (Shiraev, 2016).

• Another reason why people strive to avoid cognitive dissonance is that they want to have a consistent and meaningful view of the world. When people's beliefs and attitudes are inconsistent, it can make them feel like their world is not making sense. This can be a very unsettling feeling.

• Finally, people strive to avoid cognitive dissonance because they want to avoid having to change their beliefs or attitudes. Changing one's beliefs or attitudes can be a difficult and challenging process. It can also be embarrassing to admit that you were wrong about something.

🌀🌀🌀🌀🌀🌀🌀🌀🌀🌀🌀🌀 How can cognitive dissonance be used to influence behavior?

•  One way is to create a situation where people's behavior is inconsistent with their beliefs. This can be done by giving people a choice between two options, both of which are inconsistent with their beliefs. For example, you could ask a person who believes in saving the environment to choose between buying a new car or taking public transportation.
• Another way to use cognitive dissonance to influence behavior is to make people feel guilty or ashamed. This can be done by pointing out the inconsistency between their behavior and their beliefs. For example, you could tell a person who believes in animal rights that they are contributing to animal suffering by eating meat.
• Finally, cognitive dissonance can be used to influence behavior by making people feel like they have to justify their behavior. This can be done by asking them to explain why they made the decision they did. For example, you could ask a person who just bought a new car why they decided to do so, even though they believe in saving the environment.

By understanding how cognitive dissonance works, we can use it to influence people's behavior in a positive way. For example, we can use it to encourage people to make healthier choices or to donate to charity. However, it is important to use cognitive dissonance ethically and responsibly. We should never use it to manipulate or exploit people.

References

Shiraev, E. (2016). Personality Theories: A Global View. SAGE Publications, Inc. (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781506300795

Behavioral Learning

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Comparative psychology is the study of the behavior of animals and how it compares to human behavior and encompasses topics such as (Shiraev, 2016) :

🦉 Learning   

🦉Motivation 

🦉Cognition  

🦉Social Behavior                 

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🟦Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer - major influences on comparative psychology

🟦 Darwin argued that natural selection is the driving force of evolution and that this process has shaped the behavior of all living things, including humans (Shiraev, 2016). 

🟦Spencer theorized parsimony which states that the simplest explanation is usually the correct one.

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• Comparative psychologists used the principle of parsimony to guide their research. They believed that if they could find a simple explanation for a behavior in animals, it was likely that the same explanation would apply to humans.
• Comparative psychologists studied animal behavior in a variety of ways, including observing animals in their natural habitats, conducting experiments in laboratories, and analyzing animal brains. They also compared the behavior of different species of animals to look for similarities and differences (Shiraev, 2016).
• Comparative psychologists believe that studying animals can help us understand human behavior. They argued that many basic mechanisms of learning, such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning, are the same in animals and humans. They also believed that studying animal social behavior can help us understand human social behavior.

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Anthropomorphism 

🦉Humans project their own thoughts and feelings onto animals

• Early comparative psychologists were limited by the knowledge and technology of their time. They did not have the same tools and techniques that we have today to study animal behavior objectively. As a result, they were more likely to rely on their own personal observations and beliefs, which often led to anthropomorphism.
• George Romanes published Animal Intelligence - He argued that sophisticated emotional dilemmas regulate animal behavior, and animals can display fortitude and patience (Shiraev, 2016).

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• Supporters of anthropomorphism believe that instincts are a convenient concept to explain behavior and individual traits.
• They argued that instincts are inherent patterns or complex behaviors that are not learned.
• Humans belong to social groups in which they acquire social instincts as automatic responses.

For example, the French psychologist Gustave Le Bon believed that aggressiveness as an individual trait initially emerges in a large crowd.

He argued that a nonviolent person can act aggressively in a crowd because of the power of the crowd to arouse emotions and behaviors (Shiraev, 2016). 

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Another French psychologist, Gabriel Tarde, focused on the mechanism of imitation. He argued that the entire learning process is imitation. We build our individual psychological qualities when we copy others. The English scholar William McDougall argued that human behavior could be traced to initial animal instincts. He identified 18 instincts, including parenting, self-display, and hoarding.

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Comparative psychologists studied how animals and humans learn.
They believed that all animals learn the same way, according to universal principles. They studied habit formation, which is how new behaviors become automatic. They thought that favorable conditions make a behavior more likely, and unfavorable conditions make it less likely. For example, a dog may learn to bark when its trainer says "Speak!" because it is rewarded with a treat. Similarly, a person may learn to be honest because honesty is a habit that is developed in situations where honesty is required.

🟦Edward Thorndike's puzzle box experiments (Shiraev, 2016) :

• Thorndike introduced a new method for studying habit formation.
• He placed animals in a puzzle box and observed their behavior. 
• He measured the number of trials and time it took the animals to escape.
• He found that the animals learned to escape more quickly with each trial.

He called this the learning curve.

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🟦Thorndike's laws of learning:

Thorndike proposed several laws of learning (Shiraev, 2016) :

• The law of exercise states that the more one repeats a movement, the better it is retained.
• The law of effect states that of several responses made to the same situation, those accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction are likely to be learned. 
• Thorndike believed that the law of effect also explains how some people acquire harmful habits.

References

Shiraev, E. (2016). Personality Theories: A Global View. SAGE Publications, Inc. (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781506300795

 

Conditioned Reflexes

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• Ivan Pavlov was one of the world's most influential scientists and the first Russian to win the Nobel Prize (Shiraev, 2016). Pavlov used dogs in his experiments but he loved studying human behavior. He viewed his studies as an objective study of reflexes. He set out to explain the role that reflexes play in someone's personality.
• Two categories of reflexes
• Inborn or unconditioned reflexes are associated with a signal's direct influence.
• Conditioned reflexes - are acquired under certain conditions.
• Two conditions must be present to form a conditioned reflex (Shiraev, 2016):
1. a specific situation
2. An underlying unconditioned reflex
• Pavlov believed that the dynamics of reflexes can be explained by the opposing forces of excitement and inhibition. Excitement is a state of increased activity in the brain, while inhibition is a state of decreased activity. These two forces can override each other, and the balance between them determines how a person will behave in a given situation.
• Some people may lose self-control and act erratically due to excessive excitement, while others may freeze due to excessive inhibition whenever they encounter a difficult or dangerous situation. When someone acts rationally they are able to maintain a balanced level of excitement and inhibition(Shiraev, 2016). 
• Induction is when one type of behavior can also inhibit other behaviors such as anticipating a future event vs. the suffering of waiting in line.
• Self-control refers to the ability to inhibit immediate impulses in order to gratify them later and is considered an important personality feature.

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Pavlov believed that individual personality types are determined by the dynamics of the nervous system, which he characterized by three functions: strength, balance, and agility (Shiraev, 2016):

🟦 Strength - the ability of the nervous system to maintain a state of excitement without becoming inhibited

🟦Balance - The ability to maintain a balance between excitement and inhibition.

🟦Agility - The speed with which the nervous system can change from a state of excitement into a state of inhibition aka adaptability.

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  Pavlov believed that people with different personality types have different combinations of these three functions. For example, people with strong, balanced, and agile nervous systems are likely to be confident, outgoing, and adaptable. People with weak, unbalanced, and agile nervous systems are likely to be anxious, impulsive, and easily stressed.

• Pavlov's theory of personality has been influential in psychology, but it has also been criticized for being too simplistic. Some psychologists believe that personality is more complex than a simple combination of three functions. However, Pavlov's theory remains an important contribution to our understanding of the relationship between the nervous system and personality.

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References

Shiraev, E. (2016). Personality Theories: A Global View. SAGE Publications, Inc. (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781506300795

  Reflexology

• Vladimir Bekhterev was a Russian physiologist and doctor who used the term personality in his research (Shiraev, 2016). Vladimir believed that reflexology was one of the ways researchers could study people from a multidisciplinary perspective (Shiraev, 2016).
• Bekhterev defined emotions as nervous energy that accumulates in the cerebral cortex and he defined thinking as a process of that energy affecting action after a delay(Shiraev, 2016). 

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🧠Stored energy - energy that is accumulated in the brain as a result of past experiences.

🧠This energy can be in the form of neural connections, synapses, or other changes in the brain.

🧠Modified fashion - The stored energy is not simply a copy of the past experience, but the brain modifies it in some way, such as by being associated with other memories or emotions.

🧠Stimulus - an event or experience that triggers the release of the stored energy which can be internal, such as a thought, or external such as a sight or sound.

🧠Put into action - the stored energy is used to generate a response either physical such as a movement or mental such as a thought or feeling

🧠The reflexological theory of consciousness - is the view that consciousness is a type of reflex or automatic response to a stimulus. Bekhterev believed that consciousness is not a separate entity, but rather a product of the brain's activity

• Social reflexes are the reflexes that are influenced by social conditions, for example, a person may develop a reflex of fear or aggression in response to being bullied. Examples of social conditions that can trigger social reflexes are injustice or abuse. When someone experiences injustice or abuse they may develop reflexes to help them cope such as stubbornness.

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1. Bekhterev believed that personality is the product of the brain's activity and that it is made up of a complex network of reflexes that are not only simple responses but they are also influenced by past experiences and the individual's environment.
2. Everyone has unique characteristics meaning that each person's personality is unique and shaped by their individual experiences, genetics, and environment.
3. Bekhterev believed that physical health, psychological soundness, and moral values of a person were closely connected.

References

Shiraev, E. (2016). Personality Theories: A Global View. SAGE Publications, Inc. (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781506300795