The Dark Side of Personality

  How Authoritarianism Leads to Prejudice

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The concept of the authoritarian personality is a psychological theory that attempts to explain how people come to hold prejudiced and discriminatory attitudes toward other social groups. Authoritarian personalities are characterized by a number of traits including:

• Conventionalism - a strong adherence to traditional values and norms
  
• Authoritarian submission - a tendency to submit to authority figures and to endorse authoritarian values
• Authoritarian aggression - a tendency to be aggressive and hostile towards those who violate traditional values or challenge authority.
• Anti-intraception - a distrust of subjectivity and imagination
• Superstition and stereotypy - a belief in mysticism and a tendency to think in rigid categories.
• Power and toughness - a concern with dominance and submission
• Destructiveness and cynicism - a hostile and cynical view of human nature
• Projectivity - a tendency to project one's own negative qualities onto others.
• Exaggerated concerns over sex - an excessive preoccupation with sex and sexuality.

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Research has shown that people who score high on measures of authoritarian personality are more likely to hold prejudiced attitudes towards a variety of social groups including racial and ethnic minorities,   LGBT+ people, and immigrants. This is because authoritarian personalities tend to view the world in terms of black-and-white categories, with good people on one side and bad people on the other. They also tend to be suspicious of and hostile towards those who are different from them

It is important to note that not everyone who is prejudiced has an authoritarian personality. However, research has shown that authoritarian personality is a strong predictor of prejudice.

Here are some ways to reduce prejudice against other social groups:

1. Educate people about the dangers of prejudice and discrimination
2. Promote intergroup contact and cooperation
3. Challenge negative stereotypes and misconceptions.
4. Advocate for policies that promote diversity and inclusion.

By taking these steps, we can help to create a more just and equitable society for all.

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References

Osborne, D., Satherley, N., Little, T. D., & Sibley, C. G. (2021). Authoritarianism and Social Dominance Predict Annual Increases in Generalized Prejudice. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 12(7), 1136-1145. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620969608

Still Shaping the Way We Think About Ourselves

Why Early Psychologists Still Matter: A Look at the Lasting Legacy of Freud, Adler, and Jung

The theories of early thinkers in psychology continue to have an impact today for a number of reasons:

1. These pioneers of the field and their work laid the foundation for our modern understanding of the mind and human behavior.
2. Their theories were insightful and groundbreaking and they offered new ways of thinking about human nature and the causes of mental illness.
3. Their theories have been supported by empirical research and while some of their specific ideas have been rejected many of their core insights have been validated by research.
4. Their theories are widely taught in psychology courses which means that a new generation of psychologists is exposed to their work and influenced by it to this day.

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• Psychoanalytic theory has been used to inform the treatment of mental illness, the understanding of child development, and the interpretation of art and literature.
• The theories of early thinkers in psychology have been criticized, but they remain important and influential for the reasons listed above.
• Their work has helped us to better understand ourselves and the world around us.

Here are some specific examples of the impact of early thinkers in psychology on the world today

Here are some specific examples of the impact of early thinkers in psychology on the world today (Shiraev,2016):

• Freud's theory of the unconscious mind has had a profound influence on our understanding of human behavior. Psychotherapists use psychoanalytic techniques to help people access and understand their unconscious thoughts and feelings.
• Adler's theory of striving for superiority has been used to develop interventions for a variety of problems including depression, anxiety, and antisocial behavior.
• Jung's theory of archetypes has been used to interpret art, literature, and mythology from around the world and has also been used to develop new approaches to psychotherapy.

While they are not without their flaws, they continue to be valuable and influential sources of knowledge about the human mind and behavior.

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 References

 Shiraev, E. (2016). Personality Theories. SAGE Publications, Inc. (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781506300795

A Tale of Sex, Strivings, and Wholeness

 The Three Psychoanalysts

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Jung, Freud, and Adler all believed that personality is shaped by early childhood experiences and that the unconscious mind plays a significant role in human behavior. They also all believed that people are motivated by a variety of factors including both conscious and unconscious desires (Shiraev, 2016).

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• The Three (Shiraev, 2016):

• Freud believed that the primary motivator of human behavior is sex drive, and he also believed that personality is largely determined by early childhood experiences, particularly the Oedipus complex.
• Adler believed that the primary motivator of human behavior is the striving for superiority - power, competence, and significance. He also emphasized the importance of social and cultural factors in shaping personality.
• Jung believed that the primary motivator of human behavior is the striving for wholeness - self-actualization. He also believed that personality is influenced by both the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious.

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References

Shiraev, E. (2016). Personality Theories. SAGE Publications, Inc. (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781506300795

 

"The Dark Side of the Force Awakens"

 Psychoanalysis: A New Take on the Human Mind in a Changing World

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The social and cultural changes at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century provided a fertile ground for the emergence of psychoanalysis. (Shiraev, 2016). Some of the key changes that influenced psychoanalysis include:

1. The rise of industrialization and urbanization led to a breakdown of traditional social structures and a sense of dislocation and alienation among many people. This created a need for new ways to understand and treat mental illness.
2. An increase in individualism and the pursuit of happiness led to a greater awareness of the inner world of the mind and a desire to understand the unconscious forces that shape our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
3. The growing popularity of secularism and skepticism led to a decline in religious authority and a greater willingness to question traditional explanations of human behavior.

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All of these changes created a climate in which people were more open to new ideas about the mind and human nature. Sigmund Freud's theories of psychoanalysis provided a new way to understand and treat mental illness, and they offered a new perspective on human development and behavior (Shiraev, 2016).

Here are some specific examples of how social and cultural changes related to emerging theories of psychoanalysis:

1. Freud's theory of the Oedipus complex was influenced by his observations of the changing social roles of men and women in the late nineteenth century.
2. Freud's theory of the superego was influenced by his belief that the decline of religious authority had led to an increase in internalized guilt and anxiety.
3. Freud's theory of the unconscious was influenced by the growing acceptance of hypnosis and other forms of suggestion therapy
4. Carl Jung's theory of archetypes was influenced by the study of mythology and religion from around the world. He argued that these myths and religions reflected universal patterns in the human psyche (Shiraev, 2016). 

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Psychoanalysis has had a profound influence on our understanding of the mind and human behavior. It has also had a significant impact on other fields, such as literature, art, and film.

Here are some other factors that also contributed to the emergence of psychoanalysis:

1.  The development of scientific methods, such as hypnosis and free association, allowed psychoanalysts to assess the unconscious mind.
2. The work of mental health pioneers such as Pierre Janet and Jean-Martin Charcot laid the groundwork for Freud's theories (Shiraev, 2016).
3. Freud's own personal experiences such as his own struggles with mental illness and his work with neurotic patients.

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Psychoanalysis is a complex and multifaceted field, and its relationship to social and cultural change is complex as well. However, it is clear that the social and cultural changes of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries played a significant role in the emergence of psychoanalysis as a major theoretical and clinical approach to mental health.

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References

Shiraev, E. (2016). Personality Theories. SAGE Publications, Inc. (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781506300795

 

Freud on

Conflict and Anxiety

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Each stage of Freud's psychosexual development presents certain conflicts in which the child attempts to settle using social and familial constraints (Gould,& Howson 2021). Freud believed that a fixation could continue into adulthood and cause psychological disorders like neurosis and hysteria. Freud also believed that when we do not resolve these conflicts then we can develop a fixation on an erogenous area.

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Freud believed that there was constant conflict among the id, ego, and superego. The id always wants to be satisfied while the ego fights for the need to deal with reality, and the superego attempts to provide the person with a sense of morality and ethics. Freud believed that this constant battle could create anxiety (Gould,& Howson 2021):

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  Neurotic Anxiety
• When someone believes that they will lose control of the id's desires and be punished for inappropriate behavior. For example, children touching their genitals in public A
• Reality Anxiety
• Being afraid of events that are happening in the real world such as a car crash.
• Moral Anxiety
• This occurs when someone is afraid they will violate their society's moral principles such as killing a parent

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Freud believed that when anxiety starts, the ego tries to resolve the conflict by using defense mechanisms. Freud, his daughter, and his successors identified and classified defense mechanisms (Gould,& Howson 2021) :

• Repression
• A thought or memory is prevented from entering the consciousness.
• Projection
• When someone places their own undesirable thoughts on someone else. An example would be someone believing that someone else does not like them when in reality they do not like the person.
• Rationalization
• Someone justifies a behavior or belief for reasons other than the usually socially or morally unacceptable reasons that really lie behind the belief or behavior. An example is someone stealing from their boss because they believe that they are underpaid.
• Regression
• Weh someone temporarily reverts back to an earlier development stage when faced with a stressor.

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References

 Gould, M., & Howson, A. (2021). Freud and Personality Development. Salem Press Encyclopedia.

 

Freud

And Personality Development Part Two

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Freud believed that personality development occurs as we progressively learn to control our drives as a child. As we pass through five psychosexual stages as children our id becomes focused on different erogenous areas or parts of the body that are responsive to sexual stimulation. (Gould,& Howson 2021)

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Freud's five stages of personality are centered on erogenous zones and have three key components  (Gould,& Howson 2021):

1. Physical
2. Psychological
3. Type of fixation

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Freud's five stages of personality development(Gould,& Howson 2021):

• Oral Stage - Birth to 18 months

1.  In this stage we seek pleasure through oral activities like nursing, sucking, eating, biting, and chewing. Freud thought that a child would develop an oral fixation if they received too little or too much oral pleasure. Smoking, drinking, and nail biting are common oral fixations in adults. Freud believed that children who received too much or too little pleasure could develop either an oral-passive character which is a character that is largely passive and dependent upon others, or an oral-aggressive character, who is overly independent and aggressive toward others.

• Anal Stage - 18 months - 3 years

1. 
   During this stage, we seek pleasure through the evacuation or retention of body waste. Toilet training greatly influences this stage, as we try to reconcile our pleasure with our parent's desire that we learn to control our bodily functions. Children may refuse to use the toilet or refuse to evacuate waste altogether. Unbalanced pleasure in this stage and we can develop an anal fixation and become either an anal expulsive character - messy, disorganized, and disobedient or an anal retentive character who is controlling, obsessed with cleanliness and orderliness.

• Phallic Stage - 3-5 years

1. During this stage, children develop a desire for the parent of the opposite sex. Oedipus complex in boys and Electra complex in girls. Freud believed that boys would be envious of their fathers and fantasize about a sexual relationship with their mothers during this stage. Freud also believed that as boys realize that their mothers do not have penises, they will come to fear that their fathers will punish their desires by castrating them and this fear is called castration anxiety, and it causes boys to repress their desires for their mothers.
2. Freud also stated that girls' desires for their fathers will cause them to fantasize about having a penis and develop penis envy and according to Freud girls never realize their Electra complexes, but they live out their desires for their fathers vicariously by identifying with their mothers.
3. Freud believed that children who do not get through this phase successfully develop phallic fixations and a phallic character. One phallic character tends to have low self-regard and the other type tends to be excessively vain.

• Latency Stage - 5 years - puberty
• Freud believed that during this stage a child's sexual development comes to a halt while they repress sexual desires and tend to associate with children of the same sex
• Genital Stage - adolescence -  adulthood
• During this stage, children mature their expression of sexuality and form adult relationships with the opposite sex, according to Freud. Freud believed that the ego was fully developed at this stage and that they were capable of accepting adult responsibilities and forming a family. Freud also believed that if that person was fixated on an earlier stage
  they may develop psychological problems.

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References

 Gould, M., & Howson, A. (2021). Freud and Personality Development. Salem Press Encyclopedia.

Freud

Freud and Personality Part One

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Freud's work had a profound impact on modern understanding of the mind, sexuality, and morality, but it was also controversial. His approach has been criticized for its assumptions about gender and its emphasis on the role of mothers in personality development. Despite these criticisms, Freud's work remains highly influential in clinical psychotherapy and psychoanalytic theory.

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Freud's concept of the mind (Gould,& Howson 2021):

• ID
• The primitive, instinctual part of the mind that seeks immediate gratification of needs and desires. It is present at birth and is the source of our libido and aggressive drives.
• 
  Ego
• The rational part of the mind mediates between the demands of the id and the constraints of reality and the superego It is responsible for planning, decision-making, and problem-solving.
• Superego
• The moralistic part of the mind internalizes society's values and standards of behavior. It acts as a conscience and strives for perfection.

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Development of the Ego and Superego  (Gould,& Howson 2021):

• Infancy
• The id is dominant during infancy, as the infant focuses on meeting its basic needs for food, water, and shelter
• Early childhood -ages one to three
• The ego begins to develop as we interact with others, typically the mother. We learn that we can not always have what we need to be met immediately and must delay gratification
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  Middle childhood- ages three to five
• Our superego develops as we internalize society's values and standards of behavior. We learn what is right and wrong and feel guilty when we behave in a way that violates the superego's standards.

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