Data

Levels

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• Four measurement scales - ways to categorize different types of variables and choose the right statistical test, visualization technique, and guide data analysis.
• nominal - names/ labels
• ordinal - order is important
• interval - space between/ tell us about order and the value between each item
• ratio - ultimate order, interval values, plus the ability to calculate ratios since a true zero can be defined

Qualitative Data 🟥🟥🟥🟥🟥🟥🟥🟥

• Nominal Variables - values are not ordered like nationality, gender, etc.
• Nominal scales are used for labeling variables without any quantitative value.
• They could simply be called labels
• nominal sounds like names and these scales are like names or labels.
• At this level, you can not do any quantitative mathematical operations like addition or division.
• You can do basic counts using pandas' value _counts method
• graphs like bar charts, and pie charts.
• Ordinal Variables - 
• the order of the values is important and significant but the differences between each one are not known.
• typically measures of non-numeric concepts like satisfaction, happiness, discomfort, etc.
• Ordinal sounds like order and it is the order that matters and that is all you really get.
• We can do basic counts as we do with nominal data and have comparisons and orderings.
• graphs like bar and pie charts but now we can calculate medians and percentiles
• with medians and percentiles stem and leaf plots as well as box plots are possible.

Quantitative Data🟦🟦🟦🟦🟦🟦🟦🟦🟦

•  Two types of Quantitative variables
• Discrete Variables - their values are countable and can only assume certain values with no intermediate values like the number of heads in 10 coin tosses
• Continuous Variables - can assume any numerical value over a certain interval or intervals example the height of a person.

Interval

• numeric scales where we know both the order and the exact differences between the values.
• Celsius temperature is an example because the difference between each value is the same.
• The histogram - visualizes buckets of quantities and shows the frequencies of these buckets and we can use scatter plots - where we can graph two columns of data on our axes and visualize data points as literal points on the graph.
• Don't have a true zero - there is no such thing as no temperature. Negative numbers also have a meaning.
• We can add and subtract but can not multiply or divide.

Ratio

• tell us about order, exact value between units, and have an absolute zero.
• height and weight are examples of this.
• They can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided.
• Central tendency can be measured by mode, median, or mean
• Measures of dispersion such as standard deviation and coefficient variation can be calculated from ratio scales.

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 References

 https://medium.com/@rndayala/data-levels-of-measurement-4af33d9ab51a

Stats Can Be Sexy

                                        

Visualizing Data for the Masses

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Wells's 1903 argument

• Physical science and advanced thinking require mathematical analysis skills
• Soon, citizen competence will include the ability to compute, analyze averages,, and understand extremes.

Wilks's 1951 simplification

• "Statistical thinking will be essential for citizenship as reading and writing" (Marriott, 2014).

Wilks's breakdown of statistical thinking according to Marriot (2014).

• Six core concepts
  
• Expectation and variance - understanding averages, maximums, and minimums.
• Distribution - Recognizing patterns in data variation
• Probability - Assessing the likelihood of events
• Risk - Evaluating potential costs or dangers
• Correlation - Identifying relationships between variables

Basically, both thinkers highlight the need for data literacy in a world increasingly driven by information and analysis.

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Marriot (2014) argues that the traditional definition of statistical thinking needs to be expanded to include three new concepts which are data, cognition, and visualization.

Data

Data is the lifeblood of statistics, but it's not explicitly included in the current definition. Marriot (2014) highlights the risk of big data and data science, suggesting that statisticians risk being left behind if they do not embrace data in all its forms. (Marriot, 2014)

Marriot (2014) states that adding data to the definition of statistical thinking will not solve the problem on its own, but it will send an important message that statisticians are the original data scientists and embrace data in all its forms. 

Cognition🟦🟦🟦🟦🟦🟦

The human ability to think statistically is limited and  Kahneman's book exposes cognitive errors made by people and statisticians according to Marriot (2014).

Dual system thinking - Marriot (2014) states that Kahneman proposes two thinking systems:

1. System 1- fast, intuitive, prone to biases
2. System 2 - slow, logical, effortful

• Statistical thinking relies heavily on system 2
• Despite our natural cognitive limitations, Marriot (2014) reminds us that Kahneman offers strategies to mitigate errors, encouraging the conscious engagement of System 2 in statistical reasoning, since System 1's instinctive responses can lead to erroneous judgments.

Visualization🟥🟥🟥🟥▶️

• Statisticians excel at visualization tools like histograms, and box plots but at the same time struggle with effective communication through visuals.
• Including visualization in the definition of statistical thinking emphasizes statisticians' ability to analyze and communicate data effectively.
• Statisticians should embrace collaboration with other professionals like graphic designers and neuroscientists to keep up with evolving data trends and expertise.

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                                                            References

Marriott, N. (2014), The future of statistical thinking. Significance, 11: 78-80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-9713.2014.00787.x

Navigating

 The Waves of Change: Embracing Life's Dynamic Nature

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• Life is a continuous dance of change, an ever-evolving tapestry woven with threads of both anticipation and uncertainty. Like a river meandering through the landscape, our lives are constantly shifting and reshaping, adapting to the terrain and the currents that propel us forward. Some changes, like the gentle progression of seasons, unfold gradually, allowing us to prepare and adjust with ease. Others, like sudden storms, strike with unexpected force, leaving us scrambling to find our footing amidst the chaos.

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• Amidst this dynamic flux, the human spirit possesses an innate capacity to adjust, to adapt to the ever-changing landscape of life. Adjustment, in essence, is the process of altering our behavior or expectations to achieve a desired outcome or state of equilibrium. It's a dance of negotiation, a delicate balancing act between our internal desires and the external realities that surround us.

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Consider the simple act of driving. As we navigate the roads, we encounter unexpected obstacles, like traffic jams or sudden detours. In such instances, our adjustment mechanism kicks in, prompting us to seek a detour, slow down, or even consider an alternative route altogether. This automatic adaptation is a testament to our ability to respond to changing circumstances in real time.

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Similarly, we adjust our communication styles to match those of the people we interact with. Subconsciously, we mirror their verbal and nonverbal cues, creating a sense of rapport and connection. This ability to chameleonize, to blend in with our surroundings, is a crucial social skill that facilitates effective communication and understanding.

However, some adjustments are more profound, requiring a deeper level of conscious effort and personal transformation. The transition from high school to college, for instance, marks a significant turning point in an individual's life. It's a period of adapting to new environments, forming new friendships, and navigating the academic rigors of higher education.

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• In the realm of personality psychology, adjustment takes on a central role. It refers to the significant changes an individual undergoes in response to internal and external challenges. Adjustment, unlike coping, is not always a conscious or deliberate process. It can be a subtle shift in perspective, a gradual acceptance of new circumstances, or a complete overhaul of one's beliefs and behaviors.

As we navigate the ever-changing currents of life, let us embrace the process of adjustment, not as a sign of weakness, but as a testament to our resilience and adaptability.  Let us view change not as a threat but as an opportunity for growth, a chance to reinvent ourselves and discover new possibilities.

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Remember, life is not a static destination but a continuous journey of transformation. Embrace the ebb and flow, the twists and turns, and let the process of adjustment guide you toward
a more fulfilling and resilient existence. 

Zimbardo

Experiment

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• The Stanford Prison Experiment was a psychology experiment conducted in 1971 by Philip Zimbardo at Stanford University.
• The experiment was designed to examine the psychological effects of imprisonment, particularly the effects of power and authority.

🧪🧪🧪🧪🧪🧪Methods

• Participants were 24 male college students who were randomly assigned to be either prisoners or guards.
• The experiment took place in a mock prison that was set up in the basement of the psychology building.
• The guards were given instructions to maintain order and discipline in the prison, while the prisoners were given instructions to obey the guards.

🧪🧪 Results

• Within a few days, the guards began to exhibit abusive behavior towards the prisoners, including sleep deprivation, sexual humiliation, physical abuse, solitary confinement, and incessant prisoner counts.
• Many of the prisoners became depressed and disoriented
• Half of the student prisoners had to be released from the study because of psychological strain
• The experiment was terminated after six days due to the emotional suffering of the prisoners and the escalating abuse of the guards.

🧪🧪🧪Conclusion

• The Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated the powerful effects of situational factors on human behavior.
• It also highlighted the dangers of unchecked power and the importance of ethical considerations in research.

The experiment was designed to be realistic so the participants were not told that it was a simulation. The experiment was videotaped and the recordings were used to study the behavior of the participants. The Stanford Prison Experiment was criticized for its ethical concerns but it is still considered to be one of the most important psychology experiments ever conducted.

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 References

 Lurigio, A. J. (2023). Stanford prison experiment. Salem Press Encyclopedia of Health.

The Shocking Experiment:

How Far Will You Go to Obey an Authority Figure?

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In July of 1961, psychologist Stanley Milgram began a series of about twenty social psychology experiments designed to test the way people comply with authority (Davidson 2022)

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• Milligram wanted to know how many people who were considered normal would continue to inflict pain on another person when told to do so by an authority figure.
• He was inspired by the atrocities committed during World War II by seemingly average German citizens who were following the orders of their leaders.

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First Experiment (Davidson 2022):

one adult played the role of an emotionless authority figure, while an actor played the role of the learner. The experimental subjects, all men, were cast in the role of the teacher and instructed to deliver an electric shock to the learner for each mistake. The shocks started at 15 volts up to 450 volts. The teacher was given a 45-volt shock before the experiment began to experience what the learner would feel. The teacher and learner were placed in separate rooms so that they could hear but not see each other. The teacher would read a work and the learner would have to choose the correct word from a list of four. The authority figure reminded the teacher to shock the learner with a stronger shock each time a mistake was made. The teacher was unaware that the learner was an actor.

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Before the experiment, Milgram polled Yale psychology graduate students and faculty about what percentage of people they predicted would administer the highest level of shock.

65 percent of the 40 men administered the full range of shocks. Not one of the 40 men stopped before reaching 300 volts.

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Milgram designed about twenty variations of this experiment and this is what he learned (Davidson 2022):

🧪🧪Women were slightly more likely than men to complete the shock series.

🥼🥼More people completed the shock series when the authority figure was in the room.

🟦🟦Fewer teachers completed the series when they had to physically place the actor's arm on the shock device.

👀👀About 2/3 of the teachers completed the shock series regardless of their cultural background or gender.

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Milgram concluded that in a structured society, an innate need exists that causes one to obey authority regardless of one's cultural background and gender. He also concluded that when people have little information about a situation, they tend to comply thoughtlessly to the demands of authority.

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Milgram was criticized strongly for the psychological discomfort that he allowed the subjects to feel and was denied tenure at Harvard. 

His later research produced the concept of "six degrees of separation"

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 Reference

 Davidson, M. S. (2022). Psychologist Stanley Milgram Begins Obedience-to-Authority Experiments. Salem Press Encyclopedia.

An Existential Journey From The Shadow to Self-Actualization:

A Creative Approach to Sobriety

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Carl Jung, Sigmund Freud, and Rollo May were all influential psychologists who developed different theories of personality and psychopathology. While their theories had some similarities, they also had significant differences. If these three were to come together to develop a treatment plan for someone suffering from addiction they would likely draw on all of their different perspectives to create a comprehensive and individualized plan. Well I have been studying these guys this term and I believe that a daily schedule would look like this for the patient

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Here is a sample daily schedule therapy plan for someone suffering from an addiction based on the approaches of Carl Jung, Sigmund Freud, and Rollo May

Monday

• Morning: Individual therapy with a Jungian therapist
• Afternoon: Group therapy
• Evening: Cognitive-behavioral therapy

Tuesday:

• Morning: Psychoanalysis with a Freudian therapist
• Afternoon: Mindfulness meditation\
• Evening: Art therapy

Wednesday:

• Morning: Support group meeting
• Afternoon: Relapse prevention workshop
• Evening: Individual therapy

Friday

• Morning: Individual therapy with a Jungian therapist
• Afternoon: Group therapy
• Evening: Cognitive-behavioral therapy

Saturday

• Morning: Mindfulness meditation
• Afternoon: Free time
  
• Evening: Support group meeting

Sunday

• Morning: Yoga
• Afternoon: Free time
• Evening: Individual therapy

Rollo May

Existential Psychology

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• A person's existence and experience is unique, exceptional, and unrepeatable
• Everyone is a universe in itself.
• Importance of a person's free will and choice
• It is necessary to consider every person as a unique entity in the context of their own circumstances, relationships, conditions, influences, and internal forces.

• Existential psychologists tend to be optimistic
• A self-improving person overcomes selfish desires and pride keeps away from the material world and practices meditation to reach a state of pure consciousness
• Focus on the awareness of others, and self-awareness to pursue pure consciousness and happiness.

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Rollo May

• His health problems early in life and his search for inner strength gave him a creative insight into personality psychology
• he believed anxiety was provoked by technological and social changes taking place in the world and he believed that these factors led to anxiety (Shiraev 2016):
• People were caught up in a conflict between the old world of tradition and the new world of change.
• Tradition represented stability and certainty and change was rooted in uncertainty and instability
• Emerging threats to the individual's fundamental family values
• This anxiety led to confusion which increased the sense of powerlessness and insignificance which can lead to anger and even violence

May encourage people to reduce their anxiety by rediscovering the importance of caring for one another.

3 Ways to cope with Fear:

1. Avoidance
2. Confronting
3. Accept it
4. Identifying it

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 References

 Shiraev, E. (2016). Personality Theories. SAGE Publications, Inc. (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781506300795